Indian National Movement - Early Phase
Concepts (25)
This was a strategy used by the British to stay in power. They tried to create conflicts between different religious and social groups. In Bengal, they tried to turn Muslims against Hindus.
This was a strategy used by the British to stay in power. They tried to create conflicts between different religious and social groups. In Bengal, they tried to turn Muslims against Hindus. They told Muslims that a separate province would give them more benefits. By keeping Indians divided, the British prevented a united revolt. For example, the creation of Eastern Bengal was meant to favor a specific community to gain their support.
This was the official trigger for the Swadeshi Movement. Lord Curzon divided Bengal into East Bengal and West Bengal. He said the province was too large to govern properly.
This was the official trigger for the Swadeshi Movement. Lord Curzon divided Bengal into East Bengal and West Bengal. He said the province was too large to govern properly. The real goal was to create a rift between religious groups and weaken the center of Indian nationalism. Example: The British separated the Muslim-majority eastern region from the Hindu-majority western region to stop them from protesting together.
This concept was introduced by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.' He explained that the British were taking India's wealth to England through salaries, pensions, and trade profits.
This concept was introduced by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.' He explained that the British were taking India's wealth to England through salaries, pensions, and trade profits. India received no financial or material return for this. This theory helped Indians understand how colonial rule was making them poor and causing frequent famines.
Annulment means to officially cancel a law or decision. The protests against the partition were very strong. The British government finally gave in to the pressure. In 1911, King George V visited India for the Delhi Durbar.
Annulment means to officially cancel a law or decision. The protests against the partition were very strong. The British government finally gave in to the pressure. In 1911, King George V visited India for the Delhi Durbar. During this event, the partition was cancelled. However, the capital of India was moved from Calcutta to Delhi in the same year. This was done to reduce the political importance of Bengal.
The British changed administrative titles as they conquered more area. Initially, each province had its own Governor. The Regulating Act of 1773 created the 'Governor General of Bengal.
The British changed administrative titles as they conquered more area. Initially, each province had its own Governor. The Regulating Act of 1773 created the 'Governor General of Bengal.' Later, as the British took over most of India, the Charter Act of 1833 created the 'Governor General of India.' This change meant that one person now had power over the military and civil administration of all British territories in India. Lord William Bentinck was the first to hold this unified title.
These were hidden groups formed by students and youth to plan revolts. Since the British banned open protests, these groups met in secret. The most famous was the Anushilan Samiti. They practiced physical training and studied revolutionary books.
These were hidden groups formed by students and youth to plan revolts. Since the British banned open protests, these groups met in secret. The most famous was the Anushilan Samiti. They practiced physical training and studied revolutionary books. They wanted to create a network of brave soldiers for India. For example, they used the 'Jugantar' newspaper to spread their message of freedom across Bengal.
Due to the pressure from the Home Rule Movement, the British Secretary of State, Edwin Montagu, made a statement. He promised that the British would slowly increase the participation of Indians in every branch of administration.
Due to the pressure from the Home Rule Movement, the British Secretary of State, Edwin Montagu, made a statement. He promised that the British would slowly increase the participation of Indians in every branch of administration. He also mentioned the development of self-governing institutions. This statement is also called the 'August Declaration'. It eventually led to the Government of India Act 1919.
The 'Moderates' (1885-1905) used peaceful methods like letters and petitions to request reforms. They were loyal to the British Crown and wanted gradual change. Examples include Surendranath Banerjee and G.K. Gokhale.
The 'Moderates' (1885-1905) used peaceful methods like letters and petitions to request reforms. They were loyal to the British Crown and wanted gradual change. Examples include Surendranath Banerjee and G.K. Gokhale. The 'Extremists' (1905-1917) felt that prayers were not working. They used 'Swadeshi' (using Indian goods) and 'Boycott' (avoiding British goods) as weapons. They wanted total self-rule (Swaraj). Famous leaders include the trio Lal-Bal-Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal).
In the 1920s, revolutionary goals changed. Instead of just replacing British rulers with Indian rulers, they wanted to end all forms of exploitation. They were influenced by the Soviet Union.
In the 1920s, revolutionary goals changed. Instead of just replacing British rulers with Indian rulers, they wanted to end all forms of exploitation. They were influenced by the Soviet Union. Bhagat Singh wrote 'Why I am an Atheist' to explain his logical and socialist views. This meant they started caring more about the rights of peasants and factory workers than just political freedom.
During the movement, students were asked to leave government-controlled schools. To provide an alternative, leaders set up Indian-run institutions. They wanted education to be secular, national, and technical.
During the movement, students were asked to leave government-controlled schools. To provide an alternative, leaders set up Indian-run institutions. They wanted education to be secular, national, and technical. The Bengal National College was a famous example of this effort. Example: Aurobindo Ghosh became the first principal of the Bengal National College to teach students about Indian heritage.
Swadeshi means using goods made in your own country. Boycott means refusing to buy or use British goods. This was a method to hit the British economically. For example, people burnt foreign cloth in public bonfires during 1905.
Swadeshi means using goods made in your own country. Boycott means refusing to buy or use British goods. This was a method to hit the British economically. For example, people burnt foreign cloth in public bonfires during 1905.
This was the primary method of the Moderates. It involves using legal and peaceful means to ask for political changes. They avoided mass movements or breaking laws.
This was the primary method of the Moderates. It involves using legal and peaceful means to ask for political changes. They avoided mass movements or breaking laws. Instead, they used speeches, newspaper articles, and formal meetings to influence the government. An example is the annual Congress sessions where they discussed laws and passed formal resolutions to be sent to the Viceroy.
This system was mostly used in South India. The word 'Ryot' means a peasant or farmer. Unlike the Zamindari system, there were no middlemen. The British government dealt directly with the farmers.
This system was mostly used in South India. The word 'Ryot' means a peasant or farmer. Unlike the Zamindari system, there were no middlemen. The British government dealt directly with the farmers. The land was surveyed and measured before the tax was decided. While it seemed fairer, the tax rates were kept very high (often 50% to 60% of the crop). The government could also increase the tax every 20-30 years. Farmers often had to take loans from moneylenders to pay these high taxes.
This theory suggests that the British created the INC to act as a 'safety valve' for Indian anger. After the 1857 revolt, the British feared another violent uprising.
This theory suggests that the British created the INC to act as a 'safety valve' for Indian anger. After the 1857 revolt, the British feared another violent uprising. By giving Indians a platform to talk and debate, the British hoped to release the political pressure peacefully. A.O. Hume is often linked to this idea. However, many historians now believe the 'Lightning Conductor' theory, which says Indian leaders used Hume to bring people together without making the British suspicious.
Self-government meant that Indians would have the power to make laws for their own country. However, they would still remain part of the British Empire for matters like defense and foreign policy.
Self-government meant that Indians would have the power to make laws for their own country. However, they would still remain part of the British Empire for matters like defense and foreign policy. This was different from 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence, which was demanded much later. For example, it was like a state government having powers to manage its own schools and roads.
This was a historic agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. The Home Rule Movement played a big role in bringing these two groups together. They agreed to put forward common political demands to the British government.
This was a historic agreement between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. The Home Rule Movement played a big role in bringing these two groups together. They agreed to put forward common political demands to the British government. This was a rare moment of Hindu-Muslim political unity in the freedom struggle. An example of this unity was their joint demand for more elected Indian members in the government.
Extremists like Tilak, Pal, Rai championed Swadeshi and Swaraj, advocating direct action against British rule, culminating in the 1907 Surat Split over methods and goals.
The Extremist phase of the Indian National Movement (roughly 1905-1918) marked a significant shift from the Moderate approach, advocating more assertive methods to achieve political goals. Key leaders included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (the 'Lal-Bal-Pal' trio), and Aurobindo Ghosh. Their rise was fueled by several factors: the failure of Moderate methods to yield substantial results, the reactionary policies of Lord Curzon (such as the Calcutta Corporation Act of 1899, the Official Secrets Act of 1904, the Indian Universities Act of 1904, and crucially, the Partition of Bengal in 1905), and inspiring international events like Japan's victory over Russia in 1905. The Extremists believed in the capacity of the masses, held a strong hatred for foreign rule, and championed 'Swaraj' (self-rule) as the ultimate goal, advocating direct political action and self-sacrifice.
The Swadeshi Movement, which began as a reaction to the Partition of Bengal, became the primary vehicle for Extremist ideology. The partition, formally announced in July 1905 and enforced in October 1905, aimed to weaken Bengal, the nerve center of Indian nationalism, by dividing it on communal lines. Initially, the anti-partition movement (1903-05) was led by Moderates like Surendranath Banerjea, employing constitutional methods like public meetings and petitions. However, after 1905, the Extremists gained dominance, transforming it into a mass political struggle. Their methods included the boycott of foreign goods (especially cloth), public meetings and processions, forming volunteer corps (samitis), using traditional festivals for propaganda, emphasizing self-reliance (atma shakti), promoting national education, and fostering indigenous enterprises. The Congress, at its 1905 session under Gokhale, condemned the partition and supported the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal. A significant step was taken at the Calcutta session in 1906, presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, where 'Swaraj or self-government' like the UK or colonies was declared the goal of the INC. This was a concession to the rising Extremist influence.
The growing ideological and methodological differences between Moderates and Extremists reached a deadlock at the Surat session of the Indian National Congress in 1907, leading to the 'Surat Split'. Extremists wanted Tilak or Lajpat Rai as president and a more aggressive stance, while Moderates preferred Rash Behari Ghosh and constitutional methods. The split severely weakened the nationalist movement. The Swadeshi Movement gradually fizzled out by 1908 due to severe government repression, lack of effective organization, the arrest and deportation of key leaders (like Tilak in 1908), and a narrow social base (Muslims largely kept away). Despite its eventual decline, the movement was a 'leap forward', marking the first time students, women, and certain sections of zamindars and labor participated in a mass political struggle, laying the groundwork for future movements. The Partition of Bengal was finally annulled in 1911, partly to curb revolutionary terrorism.
The emergence of Extremism and the Swadeshi Movement marked a pivotal shift in the Indian National Movement, moving beyond the 'prayer, petition, and protest' methods of the Moderates. The ideological underpinnings of Extremism were rooted in a deep sense of national pride, a belief in the inherent strength of the Indian people, and a profound disillusionment with British justice and benevolence. Unlike the Moderates who sought reforms within the British Empire, Extremists aimed for 'Swaraj' – complete self-rule, though its exact definition varied among leaders, ranging from colonial self-government to complete independence. Their core tenets included a fierce hatred for foreign rule, an unwavering belief in the capacity of the Indian masses to participate in political action, and an advocacy for direct political action and self-sacrifice, moving away from mere constitutional agitation.
The Swadeshi Movement, ignited by the Partition of Bengal in 1905, became the practical manifestation of Extremist ideology. Lord Curzon's official reason for partition was administrative convenience, stating Bengal was too large to govern efficiently. However, the real motive was to curb the burgeoning nationalist sentiment by dividing the politically active Bengali population along communal lines (Hindu-majority West Bengal and Muslim-majority East Bengal). The movement evolved in phases: initially, a Moderate-led anti-partition campaign (1903-1905) utilized traditional methods like petitions and public meetings, led by figures such as Surendranath Banerjea. However, with the formal enforcement of partition in October 1905, the movement transformed under Extremist leadership. Its methods expanded significantly to include a comprehensive boycott of foreign goods, especially British textiles, which was economically impactful. Beyond this, it encompassed the promotion of 'Swadeshi' or indigenous industries, national education (establishment of institutions like the Bengal National College), and the use of traditional festivals (like Ganapati and Shivaji festivals popularized by Tilak) to mobilize masses and spread nationalist ideas. The concept of 'Atma Shakti' or self-reliance was central, encouraging Indians to develop their own institutions and capabilities.
Comparison: Moderates vs. Extremists
- Goals: Moderates aimed for administrative reforms and greater Indian representation within the British Empire, believing in the 'providential' nature of British rule. Extremists sought 'Swaraj' or complete self-rule, viewing British rule as exploitative.
- Methods: Moderates relied on constitutional agitation, petitions, resolutions, and appeals to the British sense of justice. Extremists advocated direct action, boycott, passive resistance, non-cooperation, and mass mobilization.
- Leadership: Moderates included Dadabhai Naoroji, G.K. Gokhale, S.N. Banerjea. Extremists included Tilak, Pal, Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh.
- Social Base: Moderates primarily drew support from the educated middle and upper classes. Extremists broadened the base to include students, women, lower-middle classes, and some sections of zamindars and labor, though mass participation was still limited compared to later movements.
Case Study: Partition of Bengal and its Aftermath The Partition of Bengal (1905) served as a critical catalyst. The British government's move, despite widespread protests, demonstrated the limitations of Moderate methods. The subsequent Swadeshi movement saw unprecedented public participation. For instance, in Madras, Chidambaram Pillai led the movement, while in Delhi, Syed Haider Raza played a crucial role. The movement also saw the emergence of 'Samitis' or volunteer groups, like the 'Anushilan Samiti' and 'Dawn Society', which organized boycotts, national education initiatives, and sometimes even revolutionary activities. The government responded with severe repression, banning public meetings, arresting leaders, and suppressing newspapers. Tilak's arrest in 1908 and subsequent six-year imprisonment for sedition epitomized this crackdown. The Surat Split in 1907, where the Congress formally divided, further weakened the movement, as the Extremists were left without a national platform and faced intense government repression, while the Moderates were unable to effectively lead the mass movement.
Mains Essay Angles:
- Question: "The Swadeshi Movement, though short-lived, laid the foundation for future mass movements in India." Discuss.
- Arguments: It introduced new methods of struggle (boycott, national education, passive resistance), broadened the social base of the nationalist movement, fostered self-reliance and national pride, and demonstrated the potential for mass mobilization, influencing Gandhi's later strategies. Its failures (lack of sustained organization, communal divide) also provided crucial lessons.
- Question: "Was the Surat Split (1907) an inevitable outcome of the ideological differences within the Indian National Congress?" Analyze.
- Arguments: Inevitable due to fundamental differences in goals (reform vs. Swaraj) and methods (constitutional vs. direct action), exacerbated by Curzon's policies and the momentum of the Swadeshi movement. Avoidable if leaders had shown greater compromise and recognized the need for a united front against colonial rule, or if the government hadn't exploited the divisions.
Despite its eventual decline by 1908, primarily due to government repression, lack of a unified organization, and the split in nationalist ranks, the Swadeshi Movement significantly transformed Indian nationalism. It shifted the focus from elite constitutionalism to mass participation and direct action, fostering a spirit of self-reliance and national identity that would prove crucial in the decades to come. The annulment of the Partition in 1911, though attributed to administrative reasons, was also a tacit acknowledgment of the movement's impact and the need to curb revolutionary terrorism that emerged in its wake.
INC founded 1885 by A.O. Hume in Bombay, initiating the Moderate Phase (1885-1905). Early nationalists like Naoroji, Gokhale used constitutional methods to critique British rule and demand reforms.
The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in December 1885 in Bombay, marking a pivotal moment in India's freedom struggle. Initially conceived as the 'Indian National Union' by retired British civil servant A.O. Hume, it was renamed and held its first session at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College with W.C. Bonnerjee as its first president. This period, from 1885 to 1905, is known as the Moderate Phase, characterized by leaders who believed in constitutional agitation and gradual reforms.
Before the INC, several regional political associations laid the groundwork for an all-India body. Notable examples include the Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha (1836), Zamindari Association (1836), Bengal British India Society (1843), British Indian Association (1851), East India Association (1866) by Dadabhai Naoroji in London, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870), Indian League (1875), Indian Association of Calcutta (1876) by Surendranath Banerjea and Anand Mohan Bose, Bombay Presidency Association (1885), and Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884). These organizations highlighted the growing political consciousness and the need for a unified platform.
The foundational theories surrounding INC's birth include the 'Safety Valve Theory' (Lala Lajpat Rai), suggesting Hume formed it to prevent a violent uprising by channeling discontent. The 'Conspiracy Theory' (R.P. Dutt) viewed it as a British attempt to control the nationalist movement. Conversely, the 'Lightning Conductor Theory' (G.K. Gokhale, Bipan Chandra) argued that early nationalist leaders used Hume to gather forces under a 'safety valve' guise, leveraging his official position to avoid immediate suppression.
Prominent leaders of the Moderate Phase included Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea, Pherozeshah Mehta, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Badruddin Tyabji, P. Ananda Charlu, and Anand Mohan Bose. Their methodology involved constitutional agitation within the bounds of law, creating public opinion in India, and campaigning for Indian demands in England. They aimed for political education of the masses and believed the time was not ripe for a direct challenge to colonial rule, seeking political connections with Britain in India’s interests.
The Moderates made significant contributions, including an economic critique of British imperialism, famously articulated through the 'Drain Theory' by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, and Dinshaw Wacha. They demanded constitutional reforms, campaigned for general administrative reforms (like Indianization of civil services), and defended civil rights. Their efforts laid the intellectual and organizational foundation for the subsequent phases of the Indian national movement.
The Moderate Phase of the Indian National Congress (1885-1905) was crucial for establishing the ideological and organizational bedrock of Indian nationalism. Their primary objective was not complete independence but rather administrative reforms, greater Indian representation in legislative councils, and protection of civil liberties, all within the framework of British rule. They believed in the 'providential' nature of British rule and sought to transform it into a more just and equitable system through constitutional means.
Detailed Analysis: Economic Critique and the Drain Theory One of the most profound contributions of the early nationalists was their meticulous economic critique of British imperialism. Led by figures like Dadabhai Naoroji (who published 'Poverty and Un-British Rule in India'), Romesh Chandra Dutt (author of 'The Economic History of India'), and Dinshaw Wacha, they developed the 'Drain Theory'. This theory systematically argued that British policies were impoverishing India by siphoning off its wealth and resources to Britain without adequate economic return. They highlighted that India was being transformed into a supplier of raw materials and foodstuff, an importer of finished goods, and a field for British capital investment, disrupting its self-sufficient economy. They pointed to the salaries and pensions of British officials, military expenditure, interest on public debt, and profits of British companies as components of this 'drain'.
To mitigate this deprivation, Moderates demanded specific economic reforms: a significant reduction in land revenue, abolition of the oppressive salt tax, improved working conditions for plantation labour, a drastic cut in military expenditure, and encouragement for modern Indian industries through tariff protection and direct government aid. Their persistent advocacy created an all-India public opinion that British rule was the primary cause of India's poverty and economic backwardness, a powerful counter-narrative to the British claim of bringing prosperity.
Comparison with Related Concepts:
- Pre-Congress Organizations vs. INC: While pre-Congress organizations like the Indian Association of Calcutta (1876) and Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884) were significant, they were largely regional in scope and influence. The INC, in contrast, was the first truly all-India organization, bringing together leaders and representatives from diverse regions, castes, and religions, fostering a sense of national unity. Its annual sessions in different parts of the country further solidified this national character.
- Moderates vs. Extremists (1905 onwards): The Moderates' approach of 'prayer, petition, and protest' (or '3Ps') contrasted sharply with the later Extremist phase (1905-1919) led by figures like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal. While Moderates believed in appealing to the British sense of justice and fair play, Extremists lost faith in British intentions and advocated for more assertive methods like Swadeshi, boycott, and direct action, aiming for Swaraj (self-rule) rather than just reforms. Their goals and methodologies diverged significantly, leading to the Surat Split in 1907.
Case Study: The Indian Civil Service Agitation One prominent example of Moderate activism was the agitation for the Indianization of the Civil Services. Surendranath Banerjea, a prominent Moderate leader, was at the forefront of this movement. He had himself been dismissed from the ICS on flimsy grounds, fueling his resolve. The Moderates argued that the existing system, which required Indians to travel to England for examinations, was discriminatory and prevented qualified Indians from joining the administration. They demanded simultaneous examinations in India and England and an increase in the age limit for candidates. This agitation, though not immediately successful in achieving all demands, highlighted the racial discrimination inherent in British administration and mobilized public opinion, demonstrating the Moderates' commitment to administrative reforms and equal opportunities.
Mains Essay Angles with Sample Arguments:
- "The Moderates were political beggars who achieved little." Critically evaluate this statement.
- Arguments for 'political beggars': Their methods were often seen as timid and ineffective by later nationalists. Reliance on petitions and appeals to British conscience yielded slow and limited results. They failed to involve the masses effectively, confining their activities largely to the educated elite. Their demands were often incremental and did not challenge the fundamental premise of British rule.
- Arguments against 'political beggars' (their achievements): They laid the intellectual foundation for nationalism, exposing the exploitative nature of British rule through the Drain Theory. They politicized and educated a generation of Indians, fostering national unity. They secured significant constitutional reforms, such as the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which expanded legislative councils, albeit with limited powers. They defended civil rights and freedom of the press. Their work created the necessary public opinion and organizational structure for future, more assertive movements. They acted as a 'lightning conductor,' preventing premature suppression of the nationalist movement.
- Discuss the significance of the Moderate Phase in shaping the trajectory of the Indian National Movement.
- Significance: Established the first all-India political platform. Articulated the economic critique of colonialism. Initiated constitutional agitation and political education. Trained future leaders. Secured initial legislative reforms. Fostered national consciousness and unity among diverse groups. Provided a 'safety valve' for nascent nationalism, allowing it to grow without immediate suppression. Their intellectual legacy, particularly the Drain Theory, became a cornerstone of subsequent nationalist arguments.
Swaraj means self-rule. For Moderates, it meant more Indian members in the government. For Extremists, it meant complete independence from British control. Tilak was the biggest champion of this concept.
Swaraj means self-rule. For Moderates, it meant more Indian members in the government. For Extremists, it meant complete independence from British control. Tilak was the biggest champion of this concept.
This happened because of a disagreement over who should be the Congress President. Moderates wanted Rash Behari Ghosh, while Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai. The party divided, weakening the movement for some time.
This happened because of a disagreement over who should be the Congress President. Moderates wanted Rash Behari Ghosh, while Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai. The party divided, weakening the movement for some time.
This was a land revenue system started in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis. Under this, the tax amount was fixed forever and could not be increased in the future.
This was a land revenue system started in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis. Under this, the tax amount was fixed forever and could not be increased in the future. The Zamindars were recognized as the owners of the land as long as they paid the fixed tax to the British. If they failed to pay, their land was auctioned. This system protected the British income but was very hard on the actual farmers. For example, even during a drought, the Zamindar had to pay the full amount.
These were two sides of the same coin used as political weapons. Boycott involved refusing to buy British goods like cloth and salt to hurt their profits. Swadeshi involved promoting Indian-made goods to achieve self-reliance.
These were two sides of the same coin used as political weapons. Boycott involved refusing to buy British goods like cloth and salt to hurt their profits. Swadeshi involved promoting Indian-made goods to achieve self-reliance. This helped local industries grow and gave Indians a sense of pride. Example: Instead of buying cheap cloth from Manchester, people started wearing hand-spun Khadi.
Moderates demanded that high-level government jobs (Civil Services) should be open to Indians. At that time, these jobs were mostly for the British. They argued that hiring Indians would make the administration cheaper.
Moderates demanded that high-level government jobs (Civil Services) should be open to Indians. At that time, these jobs were mostly for the British. They argued that hiring Indians would make the administration cheaper. It would also stop Indian tax money from being sent to England as salaries for British officers. They wanted the exams to be held in India so that poor Indians could also participate.
This movement started as a reaction to the Partition of Bengal. 'Swadeshi' means 'of one's own country'. People stopped buying British clothes, salt, and sugar. Instead, they used goods made in India.
This movement started as a reaction to the Partition of Bengal. 'Swadeshi' means 'of one's own country'. People stopped buying British clothes, salt, and sugar. Instead, they used goods made in India. This was the first time Indians used economic boycott as a political tool. For example, people burnt foreign clothes in big bonfires. It helped local Indian industries grow because demand for Indian goods increased.
Women played a brave role in these movements. They did not just cook or hide weapons; they participated in raids. Pritilata Waddedar died leading an attack on a European club. Kalpana Datta was arrested for her role in the Chittagong raid.
Women played a brave role in these movements. They did not just cook or hide weapons; they participated in raids. Pritilata Waddedar died leading an attack on a European club. Kalpana Datta was arrested for her role in the Chittagong raid. Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhary, two schoolgirls, shot a British District Magistrate. This showed that the fight for freedom involved every part of Indian society.
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