Indus Valley Civilization
Concepts (7)
The Harappan economy thrived on agriculture, animal domestication, and extensive internal and foreign trade facilitated by standardized weights and measures, showcasing a sophisticated economic system
The Harappan economy was a complex system driven by agriculture, crafts, and trade, both internal and external. It was the backbone of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), supporting its urban centers and large population. Key to understanding the Harappan economy is recognizing its interconnectedness and reliance on standardized practices.
Key Facts:
- Agriculture: The IVC cultivated wheat, barley, cotton, peas, sesame, and dates. Evidence of ploughed fields at Kalibangan suggests advanced agricultural techniques. [Parent Topic Context]
- Domestication: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated. [Parent Topic Context]
- Crafts: Skilled artisans produced pottery, beads, jewelry, and tools from materials like copper, bronze, and stone. Chanhudaro was a major bead-making center. [Parent Topic Context]
- Trade: Internal trade flourished between Harappan cities. External trade connected the IVC with Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Seals, weights, and measures facilitated trade. [Reference Material]
- Weights and Measures: Standardized weights and measures indicate a sophisticated system for regulating trade. Cubical weights made of chert were common.
How It Works:
- Agricultural Production: Farmers cultivated crops and raised livestock, providing food and raw materials.
- Craft Specialization: Artisans specialized in producing various goods, contributing to a diverse economy.
- Internal Exchange: Goods were exchanged between different Harappan settlements, fostering economic integration.
- External Trade: Harappan merchants traded with distant regions, exchanging goods for raw materials and finished products.
- Standardization: Weights, measures, and seals ensured fair trade practices and facilitated economic transactions.
Exam Angle:
- Prelims MCQ Trap: Confusing the Harappan economy with that of the later Vedic period (e.g., assuming iron was widely used in the IVC). [Parent Topic Context]
- Mains Essay Hook: The Harappan economy demonstrates the early development of urban planning and economic specialization in the Indian subcontinent. It provides a historical context for understanding modern Indian economic systems.
The Harappan economy was characterized by a sophisticated interplay of agriculture, animal husbandry, craft production, and extensive trade networks. Its success underpinned the urban development and social complexity of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Detailed Analysis:
- Agriculture: The IVC's agricultural surplus supported a large non-agricultural population. Evidence suggests the use of irrigation techniques. Multiple cropping was likely practiced. The cultivation of cotton was particularly significant, contributing to the textile industry. [Reference Material]
- Craft Production: The Harappans were skilled artisans, producing a wide range of goods. Pottery was mass-produced using the potter's wheel. Bead-making, metalworking, and jewelry-making were specialized crafts. The discovery of a bronze 'Dancing Girl' at Mohenjo-daro highlights the artistic skills of the Harappans. [Parent Topic Context]
- Trade Networks: Internal trade connected various Harappan settlements, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. External trade extended to Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities, indicating trade relations. The Meluhha mentioned in Mesopotamian texts is often identified with the Indus region. [Reference Material]
- Standardization: The use of standardized weights and measures is a hallmark of the Harappan economy. Cubical weights made of chert were common. A decimal system of weights and measures was likely used. This standardization facilitated trade and economic transactions.
Comparison:
- Mesopotamian Economy: Similarities include reliance on agriculture and trade. Differences include the greater standardization of weights and measures in the Harappan civilization.
- Vedic Economy: The Vedic economy was primarily pastoral and agricultural, with less emphasis on trade and urbanization compared to the Harappan economy. The introduction of iron in the Vedic period marked a significant technological difference. [Parent Topic Context]
- Mauryan Economy: The Mauryan economy was characterized by centralized control and a well-developed administrative system. In contrast, the Harappan economy appears to have been more decentralized.
Case Study: Lothal Lothal, a Harappan port city in Gujarat, provides insights into the maritime trade of the IVC. The discovery of a dockyard at Lothal suggests that it was a major center for shipbuilding and trade with other regions. Artifacts found at Lothal indicate trade with Mesopotamia and other parts of the Persian Gulf.
Mains Essay Angles:
- The Harappan economy as a model for sustainable urban development.
- The role of trade in the rise and decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
- The significance of standardization in promoting economic efficiency.
Recent Developments: Ongoing archaeological research continues to shed light on the Harappan economy. New discoveries and analyses of existing artifacts provide a more nuanced understanding of the economic activities of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Harappan art includes seals, pottery, figurines, and architecture, reflecting a sophisticated culture. Its decline was multi-causal, attributed to climate change, tectonic shifts, floods, and potentia
Harappan Art and Architecture represent the aesthetic and technological prowess of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), showcasing a distinct style and craftsmanship. The art forms primarily include seals, pottery, terracotta figurines, bronze castings, and stone sculptures, while architecture is characterized by sophisticated town planning. The decline of the Harappan civilization, around 1800-1700 BCE, is a complex phenomenon, not attributable to a single cause, marking the end of its mature phase and leading to a gradual de-urbanization.
Key aspects of Harappan art include steatite seals, often depicting animals (unicorn, bull, elephant, tiger) and human figures, sometimes with inscriptions in the undeciphered Harappan script. These seals likely served economic, administrative, or ritualistic purposes. Pottery, both plain and painted (red and black ware), shows geometric and naturalistic designs. Terracotta figurines, predominantly female (mother goddess), animal figures, and toy carts, were common. Bronze casting, using the lost-wax technique, is exemplified by the 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-daro, a striking example of early metal sculpture. Stone sculptures, though fewer, include the 'Priest King' bust from Mohenjo-daro and male torsos from Harappa, demonstrating a high degree of anatomical understanding. Harappan architecture is renowned for its grid-patterned cities, standardized brick sizes, elaborate drainage systems, and monumental structures like the Great Bath and granaries, reflecting advanced urban planning and engineering.
Regarding decline, several theories exist: (1) Climatic Change: A shift in monsoon patterns leading to increased aridity, particularly affecting the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, crucial for many Harappan settlements. (2) Tectonic Disturbances: Earthquakes and related geological shifts might have altered river courses (e.g., Indus), causing floods or drying up of tributaries. (3) Floods: Evidence of repeated devastating floods at sites like Mohenjo-daro suggests environmental catastrophes. (4) Aryan Invasion Theory: Proposed by Mortimer Wheeler, suggesting an invasion by Aryans led to the destruction of Harappan cities, though this theory is largely discredited due to lack of conclusive archaeological evidence. (5) Administrative Breakdown: A gradual weakening of central authority, leading to a decline in trade, maintenance of urban infrastructure, and overall societal cohesion. (6) Epidemics: Though difficult to prove archaeologically, widespread diseases could have contributed to population decline. The most accepted view today is that a combination of environmental, ecological, and socio-economic factors led to a slow, multi-faceted decline rather than a sudden collapse.
For Prelims, questions often focus on specific art artifacts (e.g., 'Dancing Girl', 'Priest King'), their materials, and sites of discovery. Understanding the key features of Harappan town planning (grid system, drainage) is also crucial. For Mains, essay questions might ask for an analysis of Harappan art's significance or a critical examination of the various theories regarding its decline, requiring a nuanced discussion of evidence and counter-arguments.
IMAGE-Bronze 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-daro
IMAGE-Steatite 'Priest King' bust from Mohenjo-daro
IMAGE-Harappan seal with unicorn motif
IMAGE-Harappan city plan showing grid layout and drainage
Harappan art and architecture provide invaluable insights into the cultural, religious, and socio-economic life of the Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing roughly from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. The artistic expressions, though not monumental in scale like Egyptian or Mesopotamian art, are characterized by their naturalism, vitality, and a remarkable sense of proportion. The most ubiquitous art forms are the thousands of steatite seals, typically square or rectangular, depicting a range of animals from the mythical unicorn to realistic representations of humped bulls, tigers, and elephants. These seals, often inscribed with the undeciphered Harappan script, are thought to have been used for trade, as identity markers, or for religious purposes. The consistency in iconography across vast geographical distances suggests a shared cultural and perhaps religious belief system. For instance, the 'Pashupati' seal from Mohenjo-daro, depicting a seated figure surrounded by animals, is often interpreted as an early form of Shiva, highlighting potential religious continuity.
Pottery, both plain and painted, offers another window into Harappan aesthetics. The red and black ware, with its geometric patterns, intersecting circles, and occasional naturalistic motifs like peacocks or pipal leaves, demonstrates skilled craftsmanship and a standardized production process. Terracotta figurines, particularly the 'Mother Goddess' figures with elaborate headdresses, suggest a fertility cult or reverence for a female deity, a common theme in ancient agricultural societies. Animal figurines, toy carts, and rattles made of terracotta also indicate aspects of daily life and children's play. The bronze 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjo-daro (circa 2500 BCE), standing at about 10.5 cm, is a masterpiece of the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique, showcasing the advanced metallurgical skills of the Harappans and a dynamic pose that suggests a vibrant performing arts tradition. Similarly, the 'Priest King' bust, a steatite sculpture from Mohenjo-daro, with its stylized beard, trefoil patterns on the robe, and half-closed eyes, points towards a sophisticated elite or priestly class, though its exact identity remains debated. The male torsos from Harappa, made of red sandstone, exhibit a remarkable understanding of human anatomy and musculature, anticipating later Indian sculptural traditions.
Harappan architecture, distinct from its art, is defined by its meticulous urban planning. Cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Dholavira were laid out on a grid system, with standardized burnt bricks (ratio 1:2:4), impressive drainage systems, and clear demarcation of areas like the citadel and lower town. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, a large public bathing area, and the granaries, indicate communal structures and organized storage of produce, suggesting a centralized administration. Dholavira, in particular, is noted for its sophisticated water harvesting system, including large reservoirs, demonstrating adaptation to arid environments.
Comparison with other civilizations: While Mesopotamian and Egyptian art featured monumental temples and royal sculptures, Harappan art is more intimate, focusing on smaller, portable objects. However, their urban planning and sanitation systems surpassed many contemporary civilizations. The artistic tradition, particularly the naturalism and anatomical accuracy, shows parallels with later Indian art, suggesting a foundational influence.
Regarding the decline of the Harappan Civilization (Late Harappan Phase, 1900-1300 BCE), the transition was gradual and regional, not a sudden, uniform collapse. The 'Aryan Invasion Theory' (Wheeler, 1940s), based on skeletal remains at Mohenjo-daro, has been largely refuted. Modern scholarship points to a confluence of factors: (1) Environmental Degradation: Deforestation for fuel and construction, overgrazing, and soil erosion could have strained resources. (2) Hydrological Changes: Studies suggest a weakening of the monsoon system around 2000 BCE, leading to increased aridity and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, impacting agricultural productivity for settlements along its banks. Conversely, some areas experienced increased flooding due to tectonic activity altering river courses, as seen at Mohenjo-daro. (3) Trade Disruption: The decline in trade with Mesopotamia, possibly due to internal issues in both regions or changes in trade routes, could have economically weakened the Harappan cities. (4) Disease and Epidemics: While hard to prove, large urban centers are vulnerable to epidemics, which could have decimated populations. (5) Internal Strife/Administrative Decay: A breakdown in the complex administrative and social structures, perhaps due to resource stress or increasing population, could have led to a loss of control over public works and trade networks. The shift from large urban centers to smaller, rural settlements in the Late Harappan phase, with a decline in standardized pottery, seals, and town planning, indicates a process of de-urbanization and regionalization rather than a catastrophic end. This multi-causal model is now widely accepted, emphasizing the complex interplay of human and environmental factors over centuries. For Mains, an essay might require analyzing the interplay of these factors, citing archaeological evidence from various sites to support arguments for environmental, economic, or social causes, and critically evaluating the 'invasion' theory.
Dholavira (Gujarat) is one of the five largest Harappan cities, known for its sophisticated water management system (reservoirs, dams, channels) and a large stadium/assembly ground.
Key Facts
- Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro = BRONZE, made by lost-wax casting method (NOT clay or gold). [Source: UPSC Prelims]
- Sohgaura (UP) is NOT a Harappan site — it is from Mauryan period with Prakrit/Brahmi copper inscription. [Source: UPSC Prelims]
- Rakhigarhi (Haryana) = LARGEST IVC site in India; Mohenjo-daro is largest overall (in present-day Pakistan). [Source: ASI]
- Dholavira (Gujarat): water management system + earliest known signboard with Harappan script. [Source: UNESCO WHS nomination]
- Cotton textiles found at Mohenjo-daro; cotton cultivation dates to ~5000 BCE at Mehrgarh — world's earliest. [Source: UPSC Prelims]
- Lothal (Gujarat) has a DOCKYARD — evidence of maritime trade with Persian Gulf civilizations. [Source: ASI, NCERT]
What is Dholavira famous for and how does it differ from other Harappan sites?
Dholavira (Gujarat) is one of the five largest Harappan cities, known for its sophisticated water management system (reservoirs, dams, channels) and a large stadium/assembly ground. It is notable for the earliest known 'signboard' with Harappan script inscriptions on a wooden board. Dholavira has three distinct divisions: citadel, middle town, and lower town. It is distinct from Rakhigarhi (Haryana) — the largest IVC site in India by area; Kalibangan (Rajasthan) — first site showing ploughed field patterns; and Ropar — first site excavated after independence (along Sutlej River).
Which site is NOT a Harappan site, and what distinguishes it from genuine IVC sites?
Sohgaura (Uttar Pradesh) is NOT a Harappan site. It belongs to the Mahajanapada and Mauryan periods, and is famous for a copper inscription written in Prakrit in the Brahmi script. In contrast, Harappan sites include: Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan) — known for bead-making and absence of citadel; Kot Diji (Sindh, Pakistan) — pre-Harappan period; Desalpur (Gujarat, India) — smaller Harappan town. A common trap is confusing sites by their geographic location or script associations.
How do Rigvedic Aryan culture and Indus Valley Civilization differ on key material culture points?
Key differences: (1) Warfare armour: Rigvedic Aryans used coats of mail and helmets; no evidence of such armour in IVC. (2) Metals: Both cultures were familiar with gold, silver, and copper; Rigvedic Aryans used iron, while IVC was pre-Iron Age. (3) Horses: Rigveda references horses extensively (domesticated by Aryans); NO clear evidence of horse domestication in IVC — horse bones found at late Harappan sites remain contested. This distinction is critical for dating IVC vs. Vedic culture.
What is the 'Dancing Girl' of Mohenjo-daro and what does it signify?
The 'Dancing Girl' is a bronze statuette discovered at Mohenjo-daro, created using the lost-wax (cire perdue) casting method — NOT clay, NOT carnelian, NOT gold. It depicts a young girl with an arm laden with bangles. It demonstrates the IVC craftsmen's advanced knowledge of metallurgy and artistic sophistication approximately 4,500 years ago. The lost-wax technique, also used in later periods (e.g., Chola bronzes), involves creating a wax model, coating it with clay, melting the wax, and pouring molten metal.
What are the defining characteristics of the Indus Valley Civilization?
IVC characteristics: (1) Urban planning — grid-pattern streets, underground drainage system; (2) Standardized baked-brick construction; (3) Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro (possible ritual purpose); (4) Trade connections — Persian Gulf seals found; (5) Absence of temples or palaces on Egyptian/Mesopotamian scale — predominantly secular civilization; (6) Undeciphered script (boustrophedon/right-to-left); (7) Cotton textiles — fragments found at Mohenjo-daro, oldest evidence of cotton use (~5000 BCE at Mehrgarh); (8) Weight and measure standardization. Dates: ~2600-1900 BCE (mature Harappan phase).
Where are the major Harappan sites located geographically and what are their notable features?
Major sites: Mohenjo-daro (Sindh, Pakistan) — Great Bath, Dancing Girl, Priest-King bust; Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) — granaries, R-37 cemetery, named the civilization; Dholavira (Gujarat) — water management, signboard; Rakhigarhi (Haryana) — largest in India by area; Kalibangan (Rajasthan) — fire altars, ploughed fields; Lothal (Gujarat) — dockyard, bead factory; Banawali (Haryana) — ploughed field evidence; Surkotada (Gujarat) — horse bones; Alamgirpur (UP) — easternmost IVC site; Manda (J&K) — northernmost.
What are the theories about the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization?
Multiple theories exist for IVC decline (~1900 BCE): (1) Aryan invasion/migration theory (now largely discredited) — Aryan invasions destroying IVC cities; (2) Climate change/drought — weakening of summer monsoon, river desiccation (Ghaggar-Hakra/Saraswati drying up); (3) Tectonic activity — floods and river course changes; (4) Epidemics — skeletal remains at Mohenjo-daro suggest mass deaths; (5) Overexploitation of resources — deforestation for brickmaking. Current consensus: gradual decline driven by climate change and environmental stress rather than sudden conquest.
Common Mistakes
- Students list Sohgaura as a Harappan site — it is from the Mauryan period with a Brahmi inscription, completely different period and script.
Harappan society was urban and stratified. Religion centered on Mother Goddess and Pashupati. Script remains undeciphered, primarily pictographic on seals.
Harappan society was characterized by its sophisticated urban planning and apparent social stratification, though the exact nature of its hierarchy remains debated due to the undeciphered script. Evidence suggests a ruling elite, possibly priests or merchants, overseeing a highly organized urban life. The presence of monumental structures like the Great Bath and granaries points to a centralized administration capable of mobilizing labor and resources. Craft specialization was prominent, with distinct areas for potters, bead-makers, and metalworkers, indicating a division of labor. The 'bronze dancing girl' from Mohenjo-daro, a masterpiece of Harappan art, suggests a society that valued artistic expression and possibly had entertainers or ritual dancers, offering a glimpse into their cultural life.
Harappan religion was polytheistic and largely aniconic, with a strong emphasis on fertility cults and nature worship. Key religious elements include the worship of a Mother Goddess, evidenced by numerous terracotta figurines, symbolizing fertility and prosperity. A male deity, often identified as 'Proto-Shiva' or Pashupati, is depicted on seals seated in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, and two deer), suggesting a reverence for animals and possibly an early form of Shaivism. Tree worship (especially the Pipal tree) and animal worship (e.g., the humped bull) were also prevalent. Fire altars have been found at sites like Kalibangan and Lothal, indicating ritualistic practices. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is believed to have served a ritualistic purification purpose, akin to later Hindu ablutions. Harappan burial systems varied, including complete burials (most common), fractional burials, and post-cremation burials, with grave goods like pottery, ornaments, and tools found alongside the deceased, suggesting a belief in an afterlife.
The Harappan script, found primarily on seals, pottery, and copper tablets, remains undeciphered despite numerous attempts. It is largely pictographic, with approximately 400-600 distinct signs, making it logographic-syllabic. The writing style was generally from right to left, but sometimes boustrophedon (alternating direction). The brevity of inscriptions (averaging 5 signs) and the absence of bilingual texts are major hurdles to decipherment. The script's undeciphered nature means that much of Harappan society's administrative, religious, and literary aspects are inferred rather than directly understood. The seals and sealings, beyond their script, served as markers of ownership, identity, and possibly religious symbols, playing a crucial role in trade and administration. The lack of decipherment is a key distinction from other contemporary civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt, whose scripts have been read.
IMAGE-Harappan seals with script
IMAGE-Terracotta Mother Goddess figurine
IMAGE-Pashupati seal
IMAGE-Bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro
Harappan society, flourishing between c. 2500-1900 BCE, was one of the earliest urban civilizations, characterized by its advanced civic planning and a complex social structure. While there is no clear evidence of a rigid caste system akin to the later Vedic varnas, archaeological findings suggest a hierarchical society. Large residential buildings, public structures like the Great Bath and granaries, and the presence of specialized workshops indicate a division of labor and possibly a ruling class that managed the urban centers. This elite might have comprised priests, merchants, or a combination, given the absence of elaborate royal tombs or temples. The uniformity in town planning, brick sizes (typically 1:2:4 ratio), and weights and measures across vast distances (from Shortughai in Afghanistan to Daimabad in Maharashtra) points to a strong central authority or a shared cultural tradition that enforced standardization. The 'bronze dancing girl' (c. 2500 BCE, 10.5 cm high) from Mohenjo-daro, with her confident posture and bangles, exemplifies the artistic sophistication and possibly the presence of diverse social roles within Harappan cities, including artisans and performers. The absence of significant weaponry suggests a relatively peaceful society, focusing on trade and agriculture.
Harappan religion was deeply intertwined with nature and fertility. The Mother Goddess cult, evidenced by numerous terracotta figurines (e.g., from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa), highlights the reverence for female creative energy and fertility, crucial for agricultural societies. The Pashupati seal (Mohenjo-daro), depicting a three-horned deity surrounded by animals, is often interpreted as a proto-Shiva, a lord of animals and yogis, suggesting early roots of Shaivism. This contrasts sharply with early Vedic religion, which primarily worshipped anthropomorphic male deities like Indra, Agni, and Varuna through fire sacrifices, and lacked temple structures. Harappan religious sites were not elaborate temples but rather public spaces like the Great Bath, used for ritual purification, or fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal, indicating specific ritualistic practices. Tree worship (Pipal) and animal veneration (humped bull, unicorn on seals) further underscore their connection to the natural world. Burial practices varied: complete burial (body laid supine, north-south orientation) was common, fractional burial (bones collected after exposure) and post-cremation burial (ashes in urns) were also found. Grave goods, including pottery, copper mirrors, and ornaments, suggest a belief in an afterlife and possibly social status differentiation even in death. For instance, a cemetery at Harappa (Cemetery H) shows distinct burial types, hinting at cultural shifts or different groups.
The Harappan script remains the greatest enigma of the civilization. Discovered on thousands of seals, sealings, pottery, and copper tablets, it is primarily pictographic, with signs representing objects, ideas, or sounds. With around 400-600 basic signs, it is considered logographic-syllabic, not alphabetic. The writing direction was typically right-to-left, but some longer inscriptions show boustrophedon (alternating lines). The brevity of inscriptions (average 5 signs, longest 26 signs) and the complete absence of bilingual inscriptions (unlike the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian hieroglyphs) are the primary reasons for its undeciphered status. Numerous attempts at decipherment, including those using computational linguistics and comparing it with Dravidian languages, have yielded no universally accepted breakthrough. This contrasts with Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, which were deciphered due to bilingual texts and longer inscriptions. The undeciphered script limits our understanding of Harappan administrative records, literature, and detailed religious beliefs, forcing archaeologists to rely heavily on material culture. The seals, beyond bearing the script, served as administrative tools for trade and property identification, and also as amulets or religious symbols. The 'signboard' from Dholavira, with large Harappan script characters, is a unique find, suggesting public display of writing.
Mains Essay Angles:
- "The undeciphered script of the Indus Valley Civilization is both its greatest mystery and its greatest limitation in historical understanding." Argue how the script's undeciphered nature impacts our knowledge of Harappan governance, social structure, and religious beliefs, comparing it with civilizations whose scripts are understood.
- "Harappan religion laid foundational elements for later Indian religious traditions." Discuss the evidence for Mother Goddess, Proto-Shiva, tree/animal worship, and ritual bathing, and compare these with their manifestations in later Hinduism, highlighting continuities and discontinuities with Vedic religion.
- "Analyze the social stratification and urban planning of the Harappan Civilization, drawing inferences from archaeological evidence." Discuss the roles of different social groups, the evidence for centralized administration, and the implications of uniform town planning and civic amenities for understanding Harappan society.
The Harappans used bricks that followed a specific size ratio of 4:2:1 (Length:Breadth:Height). This consistency is amazing because it was found across thousands of miles. They used both sun-dried and burnt bricks.
The Harappans used bricks that followed a specific size ratio of 4:2:1 (Length:Breadth:Height). This consistency is amazing because it was found across thousands of miles. They used both sun-dried and burnt bricks. Burnt bricks were used in drains and bathrooms because they resist water damage. This uniform engineering made their cities very durable and organized compared to other ancient cultures. Example: Walls in Harappa remained standing for thousands of years due to these bricks.
A Citadel was a raised area in the city built on a high platform. It was usually located in the west. This area likely housed important buildings or the ruling class. It was protected by high walls for safety.
A Citadel was a raised area in the city built on a high platform. It was usually located in the west. This area likely housed important buildings or the ruling class. It was protected by high walls for safety. In Mohenjo-Daro, the Great Bath and the Granary were located inside the Citadel. This shows a clear social division between the elites and common people. Example: The Citadel at Harappa was a fortified administrative center.
Seals were small, flat objects made of a soft stone called steatite. They usually had a short script and a picture of an animal like a bull, rhino, or elephant. Traders used them to seal bags of goods.
Seals were small, flat objects made of a soft stone called steatite. They usually had a short script and a picture of an animal like a bull, rhino, or elephant. Traders used them to seal bags of goods. If the seal stayed unbroken, it proved the goods had not been tampered with. These seals are the best source of information about their religious beliefs and art. Example: The Pashupati Seal shows a figure sitting like a yogi.
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