Historical Evolution of Indian Constitution
Concepts (14)
Diarchy comes from the Greek word 'di-arche' meaning double rule. It was introduced in the provinces by the 1919 Act. Under this, subjects were divided into two groups: 'Reserved' and 'Transferred'.
Diarchy comes from the Greek word 'di-arche' meaning double rule. It was introduced in the provinces by the 1919 Act. Under this, subjects were divided into two groups: 'Reserved' and 'Transferred'. Reserved subjects (like Law and Order) were handled by the Governor alone. Transferred subjects (like Health and Education) were handled by the Governor with Indian ministers. This gave Indians some power but kept the real control with the British.
This was the most important committee of the Constituent Assembly. It was set up on August 29, 1947, to prepare the actual draft of the Constitution. It had seven members, with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman.
This was the most important committee of the Constituent Assembly. It was set up on August 29, 1947, to prepare the actual draft of the Constitution. It had seven members, with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman. Because of his massive contribution, he is called the 'Father of the Indian Constitution.' The committee considered many suggestions from the public and other committees before finalizing the text. An example of their work is the detailed section on Fundamental Rights.
Colonial Legislative Acts progressively centralized British administration, introduced limited Indian representation, and laid the constitutional foundations, culminating in the 1935 Act, a significan
Definition
Colonial Legislative Acts refer to a series of parliamentary enactments by the British Government from the late 18th century to the mid-20th century, aimed at controlling, regulating, and eventually administering British India. These acts progressively transformed the East India Company's commercial enterprise into a political entity, then brought India under direct Crown rule, and gradually introduced elements of representative government, laying the foundational framework for India's modern constitutional structure.
Key Facts
- Regulating Act of 1773: First step by the British Government to control and regulate the East India Company's affairs. Designated the Governor of Bengal as 'Governor-General of Bengal' (Lord Warren Hastings was the first) and created an Executive Council of four members. Established a Supreme Court at Calcutta (1774). Subordinated Bombay and Madras presidencies to Bengal. Prohibited private trade and bribes by Company servants.
- Pitt's India Act of 1784: Distinguished between commercial and political functions of the Company. Established a 'system of double government' by creating a Board of Control for political affairs and leaving commercial affairs to the Court of Directors. Company territories were first called 'British possessions in India'.
- Charter Act of 1833: Centralized legislative power by making the Governor-General of Bengal the 'Governor-General of India' (Lord William Bentinck was the first) with exclusive legislative powers for the entire British India. Ended the East India Company's commercial activities, making it a purely administrative body. Attempted to introduce open competition for civil servants, though negated.
- Charter Act of 1853: Separated legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General's council, establishing a separate Indian (Central) Legislative Council, functioning as a 'mini-Parliament'. Introduced local representation in the Indian Legislative Council.
- Government of India Act of 1858: Transferred power from the East India Company to the British Crown following the 1857 Revolt. India was to be governed by and in the name of the Crown through a Secretary of State for India and a 15-member Council of India. Governor-General became the Viceroy (Lord Canning was the first Viceroy).
- Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms): Increased the size of legislative councils (Imperial Legislative Council to 60 members). Introduced the principle of separate electorates for Muslims, legitimizing communalism. Allowed members to discuss budget and move resolutions, but real power remained with the government. Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian in the Viceroy's Executive Council.
- Government of India Act of 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms): Introduced 'dyarchy' (dual rule) in the provinces, dividing subjects into 'reserved' (administered by Governor and Executive Council) and 'transferred' (administered by Governor and ministers responsible to the legislative council). Introduced bicameralism (Legislative Assembly and Council of State) at the Centre. Extended separate electorates to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans.
- Government of India Act of 1935: Provided for an All-India Federation comprising provinces and princely states (never fully implemented). Abolished dyarchy in provinces and introduced 'provincial autonomy'. Introduced dyarchy at the Centre. Divided powers between Centre and provinces into Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent Lists. Provided for a Federal Court. Extended separate electorates to depressed classes (Scheduled Castes), women, and labour.
Mechanism/Framework
These acts progressively built a centralized administrative and legislative framework. Initially, they aimed at controlling the Company's commercial and political excesses (1773, 1784). The Charter Acts (1813-1853) gradually stripped the Company of its commercial monopoly, centralized legislative power, and introduced rudimentary legislative bodies. Post-1857, the Crown assumed direct control (1858), leading to a gradual, albeit limited, introduction of Indian representation in legislative and executive councils (1861, 1892, 1909). The GoI Acts of 1919 and 1935 marked significant, though flawed, steps towards self-governance, introducing concepts like dyarchy, bicameralism, federalism, and provincial autonomy, alongside the controversial expansion of communal electorates. The mechanism involved a shift from a purely exploitative commercial entity to a complex administrative machinery, slowly accommodating Indian political aspirations within a colonial framework.
Exam Angle
For Prelims, focus on specific provisions, dates, 'firsts' (e.g., first Governor-General, first Indian in Viceroy's Council), and key terms (dyarchy, separate electorates). For Mains, analyze the evolutionary trajectory of these acts, their impact on Indian nationalism, the constitutional legacy they left (e.g., federalism, parliamentary system), and their limitations, such as the 'divide and rule' policy embedded in communal electorates. Essays often require a critical evaluation of how these acts shaped India's political future and contributed to the demand for complete independence.
Analysis
The Colonial Legislative Acts represent a fascinating and complex constitutional journey, marking the evolution of British rule in India from a commercial venture to a sophisticated, albeit exploitative, administrative state. This evolution can be broadly categorized into three phases: Company Rule (1773-1858), Crown Rule with limited reforms (1858-1919), and Crown Rule with significant, yet constrained, constitutional advancements (1919-1947).
Phase 1: Company Rule (1773-1858) Initially, acts like the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784 were reactive measures to curb the East India Company's corruption and mismanagement, establishing rudimentary governmental control. The 'double government' system introduced by Pitt's India Act was a seminal moment, distinguishing between commercial and political functions and asserting British government's ultimate control. The Charter Acts, particularly 1833, were pivotal in centralizing legislative power under the Governor-General of India and transforming the Company into a purely administrative body. This phase laid the groundwork for a unified administration, a common legal framework, and the concept of a 'British India', albeit without significant Indian participation.
Phase 2: Crown Rule with Limited Reforms (1858-1919) The Revolt of 1857 was a watershed, leading to the Government of India Act of 1858, which transferred power directly to the British Crown. This act was more symbolic than substantive in terms of immediate administrative change but elevated the status of India within the British Empire. Subsequent Indian Councils Acts (1861, 1892, 1909) marked the hesitant introduction of Indians into legislative councils. While the 1861 Act introduced a semblance of legislative decentralization, the 1892 Act increased the non-official members, and the 1909 Act (Morley-Minto Reforms) was a significant, albeit controversial, step. It expanded legislative councils and, crucially, introduced separate electorates for Muslims, a policy often criticized for institutionalizing communal divisions and serving the 'divide and rule' strategy. This phase saw the emergence of organized Indian nationalism, which began demanding greater representation and self-rule, challenging the colonial constitutional framework.
Phase 3: Crown Rule with Significant Constitutional Advancements (1919-1947) The Government of India Act of 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) was a response to growing nationalist demands and the impact of World War I. It introduced 'dyarchy' in provinces, a complex and often unworkable division of administrative subjects, and bicameralism at the Centre. While it increased Indian participation, real power remained with the British. The GoI Act of 1935 was the most comprehensive and significant, often termed a 'mini-constitution'. It proposed an All-India Federation, introduced provincial autonomy (abolishing dyarchy in provinces), and divided powers into three lists (Federal, Provincial, Concurrent), concepts that profoundly influenced the Constitution of independent India. However, it retained significant safeguards and reserved powers for the Governor-General and Governors, reflecting the colonial intent to maintain ultimate control. The expansion of separate electorates to other communities further entrenched communal politics.
Constitutional Legacy and Limitations These acts, despite their colonial origins and limitations, left an indelible mark on India's constitutional development. Concepts like federalism, parliamentary system, bicameralism, separation of powers, a centralized judiciary (Federal Court), and a public service commission all have their roots in these acts, particularly the 1935 Act. However, they were fundamentally instruments of colonial control, designed to manage rather than empower. The gradual introduction of representation was often accompanied by measures to divide and weaken the nationalist movement, most notably through communal electorates. The acts were criticized for their limited scope, lack of real power for Indian representatives, and the perpetuation of British paramountcy.
Comparison Table
| Feature/Act | Regulating Act 1773 | Pitt's India Act 1784 | Charter Act 1833 | GoI Act 1858 | Indian Councils Act 1909 | GoI Act 1919 | GoI Act 1935 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Primary Purpose | Control Company, centralize administration | Rectify 1773 defects, 'double government' | Centralize, end Company's commercial role | Transfer power to Crown, end Company rule | Introduce limited representation, communal electorates | Introduce 'responsible government' (dyarchy) | All-India Federation, provincial autonomy |
| Governor-General | Governor-General of Bengal | Governor-General of Bengal | Governor-General of India | Viceroy of India | Viceroy of India | Viceroy of India | Viceroy of India |
| Executive | 4-member Executive Council | Board of Control (political), Court of Directors (commercial) | 4-member Executive Council (Law Member added) | Secretary of State for India & Council of India | Indian member in Viceroy's Executive Council | Viceroy's Executive Council (no Indian majority) | Viceroy's Executive Council (dyarchy at Centre) |
| Legislative | No separate legislative body | No separate legislative body | Governor-General of India with exclusive powers | No separate legislative body (advisory) | Increased size of Imperial & Provincial Councils | Bicameralism at Centre, Provincial Legislative Councils | Bicameralism at Centre, Provincial Legislatures |
| Indian Rep. | None | None | None | None | Limited indirect election, separate electorates for Muslims | Direct elections, separate electorates for more groups | Direct elections, separate electorates for more groups, women, labor |
| Key Innovation | Central administration, Supreme Court | Double government, British possessions in India | End Company's commercial role, Law Commission | Direct Crown rule, Secretary of State | Separate electorates, increased council powers | Dyarchy in provinces, bicameralism at Centre | Provincial autonomy, All-India Federation, Federal Court |
Case Study: The Government of India Act of 1935 – A Blueprint for Modern India?
The Government of India Act of 1935 stands as a monumental piece of legislation, often described as a 'mini-constitution' due to its sheer length (321 sections, 10 schedules) and comprehensive nature. It attempted to create a federal structure for India, dividing powers between a proposed All-India Federation (Centre) and provinces, a concept foundational to India's current federal system. The introduction of 'provincial autonomy' marked a significant shift, empowering provinces with greater self-governance, albeit with the Governor retaining emergency powers. This move was a direct precursor to the state autonomy enshrined in the Indian Constitution. The Act also established a Federal Court, which became the precursor to the Supreme Court of India. Many provisions, including the emergency powers of the President, the office of the Governor, the Public Service Commissions, and the administrative details, were directly borrowed or adapted into the Constitution of India, 1950. However, the Act was also deeply flawed from a nationalist perspective. The proposed All-India Federation never materialized due to the non-accession of princely states. The retention of significant 'safeguards' and 'reserved powers' for the Viceroy and Governors meant that ultimate control remained with the British, undermining genuine self-rule. The expansion of separate electorates further exacerbated communal tensions, contributing to the eventual partition of India. Thus, while providing a structural blueprint, the 1935 Act also highlighted the inherent contradictions of colonial constitutionalism.
Mains Hooks
- Constitutional Evolution vs. Revolution: Analyze how the colonial legislative acts represent a gradual, evolutionary path towards constitutionalism in India, rather than an abrupt revolutionary break. Discuss how this legacy influenced the framing of India's own constitution, incorporating elements while rejecting others.
- 'Divide and Rule' Policy: Critically examine how acts like the Indian Councils Act of 1909 and the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, through the introduction and expansion of separate electorates, institutionalized communalism and contributed to the fragmentation of Indian society, ultimately leading to partition. (Link to Ethics: The ethical implications of political strategies that exploit societal divisions).
- Federalism and Centralization: Trace the journey from a highly centralized Company rule to the quasi-federal structure envisioned by the 1935 Act. Discuss the tension between centralization (necessary for colonial control) and decentralization (demanded by nationalists) and its enduring impact on India's federal structure today.
- Parliamentary Democracy in a Colonial Context: Evaluate the extent to which these acts genuinely fostered parliamentary democracy or merely created a facade of representation. Discuss the limitations on legislative powers, the lack of ministerial responsibility, and the ultimate supremacy of the British Parliament.
- Administrative Legacy: Beyond political reforms, analyze how these acts shaped India's administrative machinery, civil services, judicial system, and revenue administration, creating a robust, albeit colonial, state apparatus that independent India inherited and adapted.
Recent Developments
While the Colonial Legislative Acts are historical, their legacy continues to resonate in contemporary Indian polity and governance. Debates around federalism, the powers of the Governor, the role of the bureaucracy, and even the basic structure doctrine of the Indian Constitution often draw parallels or derive context from the provisions of the Government of India Act of 1935. For instance, discussions on the Centre-State relations, particularly the use of Article 356 (President's Rule), often harken back to the Governor's emergency powers under the 1935 Act. Similarly, the ongoing emphasis on inclusive representation in governance can be seen as a counter-narrative to the exclusionary and divisive electoral systems introduced during the colonial era. The historical understanding of these acts is crucial for interpreting the intent and evolution of various constitutional provisions and for engaging in informed debates about constitutional reforms and governance challenges in modern India.
Key events like the Simon Commission, Nehru Report, Cabinet Mission Plan, and Indian Independence Act shaped India's transition to independence and the making of its Constitution.
Definition
The Transition to Independence refers to the crucial period in Indian history marked by significant constitutional developments and political negotiations that ultimately led to India's freedom from British rule and the drafting of its own Constitution.
Key Facts
- Simon Commission (1927):
- Appointed by the British government in November 1927 to recommend further constitutional changes in India.
- It was an all-white commission, leading to widespread boycotts and protests across India.
- Its exclusion of Indians from its membership was a major point of contention, prompting Indian leaders to demand the right to frame their own constitution.
- Nehru Report (1928):
- Submitted in August 1928, it was an outline of a draft constitution for India, prepared by a committee headed by Motilal Nehru.
- It was a direct response to Lord Birkenhead's challenge to Indians to produce a constitution acceptable to all.
- Key features included demand for dominion status, a bill of fundamental rights, a federal system with residuary powers at the centre, and joint electorates.
- Many of its proposals were later incorporated into the Constitution of independent India.
- Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):
- Arrived in India in March 1946 with the aim of facilitating a peaceful transfer of power and helping Indians frame their constitution.
- It rejected the demand for a separate sovereign Pakistan and proposed a federal union of India.
- Key proposals included a three-tier federal structure, grouping of provinces, and the formation of a Constituent Assembly and an interim government.
- Constituent Assembly of India:
- Formed in November 1946 under the provisions of the Cabinet Mission Plan.
- Its first sitting was held on December 9, 1946, in New Delhi.
- Jawaharlal Nehru moved the historic Objectives Resolution on December 13, 1946, outlining the guiding principles and philosophy of the constitution-making process. This resolution later influenced the Preamble.
- The Assembly was declared a fully sovereign body by the Indian Independence Act, 1947.
- Indian Independence Act, 1947:
- Enacted by the British Parliament and came into force on July 18, 1947.
- Declared India an independent and sovereign state from August 15, 1947.
- Provided for the partition of India and the creation of two independent dominions: India and Pakistan.
- Abolished the office of the Viceroy and provided for a Governor-General for each dominion.
- Conferred full legislative power on the Constituent Assembly of each dominion.
Mechanism
The British government, facing increasing nationalist pressure and the aftermath of World War II, gradually conceded to Indian demands for self-rule. The Simon Commission's failure to include Indians spurred the Nehru Report, demonstrating Indian capacity for constitution-making. The Cabinet Mission Plan provided the framework for the Constituent Assembly, which then began the monumental task of drafting the Constitution. Finally, the Indian Independence Act, 1947, formalized the transfer of power, making the Constituent Assembly a fully sovereign body capable of adopting and enacting the Constitution for independent India.
Exam Angle
UPSC questions often focus on the chronology of these events, the specific provisions of the Nehru Report, Cabinet Mission Plan, and Indian Independence Act, and the role and composition of the Constituent Assembly. Understanding the evolution of constitutional demands and the British responses is critical. Pay attention to dates and key personalities.
Analysis
The transition to independence was not a linear process but a complex interplay of British policies, Indian nationalist aspirations, and communal politics. Each event, from the Simon Commission to the Indian Independence Act, contributed to the constitutional evolution, often in unintended ways.
The Simon Commission was a pivotal moment. Its 'all-white' composition, intended to assert British authority, instead galvanized Indian political parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, to unite in boycotting it. This collective rejection underscored the growing demand for self-determination and the right of Indians to frame their own constitution, directly leading to Lord Birkenhead's challenge and the subsequent Nehru Report.
The Nehru Report (1928) was a landmark document. It was the first comprehensive attempt by Indians to draft a constitution, demonstrating their political maturity and constitutional foresight. Its proposals for dominion status, a bill of fundamental rights, and a federal structure with a strong centre were remarkably prescient. While the demand for dominion status was soon superseded by the call for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) in 1929, the report's constitutional principles laid a strong foundation for the future Indian Constitution, particularly in areas like fundamental rights and federalism.
The period between the Nehru Report and the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) saw significant developments, including the Government of India Act, 1935, and World War II. The Cabinet Mission represented the final serious attempt by the British to transfer power to a united India. Its rejection of a separate Pakistan and its proposal for a three-tier federal structure with provincial groupings were designed to accommodate Muslim League's concerns within a united framework. However, the League's eventual rejection of the plan and the Congress's interpretation of its provisions ultimately led to its failure, paving the way for partition.
The Constituent Assembly, formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan, was initially conceived for a united India. Its transformation into a sovereign body for independent India by the Indian Independence Act, 1947, was crucial. The Objectives Resolution, moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946, articulated the vision of a sovereign, democratic republic, guaranteeing justice, equality, and freedom to all citizens, and providing adequate safeguards for minorities. This resolution served as the philosophical bedrock for the Constitution and is reflected in the Preamble.
Comparison Table
| Feature | Nehru Report (1928) | Government of India Act (1935) | Indian Independence Act (1947) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Status for India | Dominion Status | Provincial Autonomy, All-India Federation (never implemented) | Independent and Sovereign State |
| Constitutional Authority | Drafted by Indians | Imposed by British Parliament | British Parliament relinquishes authority |
| Rights | Bill of Fundamental Rights | No explicit bill of rights; some civil liberties implied | No specific rights, but transferred power to a sovereign nation |
| Federalism | Federal system with strong centre | All-India Federation (never came into being); provincial autonomy | Partition into two dominions, each with a sovereign Constituent Assembly |
| Electorates | Joint electorates with reserved seats | Extended communal electorates | Not directly addressed, but led to separate Constituent Assemblies |
Case Study: The Objectives Resolution and the Preamble
The Objectives Resolution, moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946, was a profound statement of the Constituent Assembly's aspirations. It declared India's resolve to be an independent sovereign republic, guaranteeing justice, equality, and freedom to all its people, and ensuring adequate safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and depressed classes. It also aimed for India to achieve its rightful place in the world and contribute to world peace.
This resolution was unanimously adopted on January 22, 1947, and significantly influenced the subsequent drafting of the Constitution. Its modified version forms the Preamble of the present Constitution, encapsulating the core values and philosophy of the Indian state. The Preamble's emphasis on 'Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic' (Socialist and Secular added later), 'Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity' directly stems from the spirit and text of the Objectives Resolution.
Mains Hooks
- Constitutionalism and Nationalism: Discuss how the demand for a self-framed constitution became a central plank of the nationalist movement, from the Nehru Report to the Constituent Assembly.
- Challenges of Nation-Building: Analyze how communal divisions and the demand for partition impacted the constitutional process, despite attempts like the Cabinet Mission Plan to preserve unity.
- Legacy of British Rule: Evaluate the extent to which British constitutional experiments (e.g., Government of India Acts) influenced the framework of the Indian Constitution, even as Indians asserted their right to self-determination.
- Role of Leadership: Examine the critical roles played by leaders like Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Lord Mountbatten in shaping the constitutional trajectory towards independence.
Recent Developments
While the events themselves are historical, their interpretation and the debates around them continue. For instance, discussions on the 'basic structure' doctrine often refer back to the foundational principles enshrined in the Objectives Resolution. The enduring relevance of the Preamble, directly derived from the Objectives Resolution, is frequently highlighted in constitutional law debates, reaffirming the vision articulated during the transition to independence.
This was the body of elected representatives who wrote the Constitution. It held its first meeting on December 9, 1946. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the temporary president. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the permanent president.
This was the body of elected representatives who wrote the Constitution. It held its first meeting on December 9, 1946. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the temporary president. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the permanent president. The assembly took almost 3 years to finish the work. Example: The drafting committee, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, prepared the final text.
The Constituent Assembly had two separate functions. When it met to write the Constitution, it was a constituent body chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad. When it met to make ordinary laws for the country, it acted as the Parliament.
The Constituent Assembly had two separate functions. When it met to write the Constitution, it was a constituent body chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad. When it met to make ordinary laws for the country, it acted as the Parliament. In its role as a Parliament, it was chaired by G.V. Mavlankar. These two roles never happened on the same day. This arrangement continued until the first general elections were held in 1951-52. This is why G.V. Mavlankar is known as the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha.
This was a very long and detailed document with 321 sections. It proposed an 'All-India Federation' consisting of provinces and princely states. It divided powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent.
This was a very long and detailed document with 321 sections. It proposed an 'All-India Federation' consisting of provinces and princely states. It divided powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial, and Concurrent. It abolished diarchy in provinces and introduced 'Provincial Autonomy'. It also led to the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India. Example: Our current division of powers in the 7th Schedule comes from this Act.
Bicameralism means a legislature or parliament that has two houses. In India today, we have the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. This system was first introduced at the central level by the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919 Act).
Bicameralism means a legislature or parliament that has two houses. In India today, we have the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. This system was first introduced at the central level by the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919 Act). It replaced the old single council with an Upper House (Council of State) and a Lower House (Legislative Assembly).
Introduced by the 1935 Act, this concept ended the system of Diarchy in the provinces. It allowed provinces to act as independent units of administration in their own defined spheres.
Introduced by the 1935 Act, this concept ended the system of Diarchy in the provinces. It allowed provinces to act as independent units of administration in their own defined spheres. This meant that the Governor was now required to act with the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature, giving more authority to elected Indian representatives.
Jawaharlal Nehru moved this resolution on December 13, 1946. It laid down the fundamental principles for the new Constitution. It promised justice, equality, and freedom for all Indian citizens.
Jawaharlal Nehru moved this resolution on December 13, 1946. It laid down the fundamental principles for the new Constitution. It promised justice, equality, and freedom for all Indian citizens. It also declared that India would be an independent and sovereign republic. This resolution was adopted on January 22, 1947. Its core ideas later became the Preamble of our Constitution. For example, the focus on 'Social, Economic, and Political Justice' started from this very resolution.
A federal system has two levels of government (Center and State) with separate powers. A unitary system has one central power. India is 'Federal' because it has states, but 'Unitary' because the Center is stronger during crises.
A federal system has two levels of government (Center and State) with separate powers. A unitary system has one central power. India is 'Federal' because it has states, but 'Unitary' because the Center is stronger during crises. Example: During a national emergency, the Center can make laws for the entire country, ignoring state powers.
This article gives the Parliament the power to change the Constitution. There are three ways to do this: simple majority, special majority, and special majority with state consent.
This article gives the Parliament the power to change the Constitution. There are three ways to do this: simple majority, special majority, and special majority with state consent. A simple majority means more than half the members present must vote 'yes'. A special majority requires two-thirds of the members present and voting. Example: Changing state boundaries needs only a simple majority.
This was the first law passed by the British Parliament to control the East India Company. It created the post of Governor-General of Bengal. Lord Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General. It also set up a Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774.
This was the first law passed by the British Parliament to control the East India Company. It created the post of Governor-General of Bengal. Lord Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General. It also set up a Supreme Court at Calcutta in 1774. This Act was the first step toward centralizing power in India. Example: It prevented Company officials from doing private business or taking gifts from Indians.
This Act is officially called the Indian Councils Act of 1909. It increased the size of the legislative councils at both the center and provinces. Most importantly, it introduced 'Separate Electorates' for Muslims.
This Act is officially called the Indian Councils Act of 1909. It increased the size of the legislative councils at both the center and provinces. Most importantly, it introduced 'Separate Electorates' for Muslims. This meant only Muslims could vote for Muslim candidates. Lord Minto is known as the 'Father of Communal Electorate'. Example: This started the system of reservation based on religion in Indian politics.
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