Dances of India

Raga is a sequence of musical notes that creates a specific mood. In Carnatic music, there are 72 main ragas called 'Melakarta' ragas. All other ragas are derived from these 72. Tala is the system of keeping time or the rhythm. It is performed using hand gestures like clapping or counting fingers. The most common tala is 'Adi Tala', which has eight beats. These two elements form the foundation of any Carnatic performance.

Folk paintings are traditional art forms practiced by common people in villages. These are passed down from one generation to another. Unlike court paintings, they use simple materials like rice paste, mud, and flower dyes. Madhubani from Bihar and Warli from Maharashtra are popular examples. Warli paintings use basic shapes like circles, triangles, and squares to show daily life activities like farming or dancing. These reflect the local beliefs and community spirit of the rural people.

A Trademark is a sign used by a specific business or company to distinguish its goods from others. It is private property. However, a GI tag is a collective right. It belongs to all producers in a specific region who follow the set standards. For instance, 'Tata Tea' is a trademark owned by one company, but 'Darjeeling Tea' is a GI tag that can be used by any tea garden in the Darjeeling region.

Carnatic music uses several unique instruments. The Veena is a string instrument often associated with Goddess Saraswati. The Mridangam is a double-sided drum used for rhythm. The Ghatam is a clay pot used as a percussion instrument. The Violin is very common today and provides support to the main singer. The Flute (Venu) is also a popular melodic instrument in this tradition.

This refers to traditions or living expressions passed down from ancestors. It is not about buildings, but about practices. It includes oral traditions, performing arts, and social rituals. UNESCO maintains a global list to help protect these practices. India has over 15 items on this list, including Vedic Chanting, Yoga, and the Kumbh Mela. Knowing this list is vital for the UPSC Preliminary exam.

Metalwork includes making items from brass, copper, and alloys. One famous example is Bidriware from Karnataka. It uses a dark metal base with silver wire work. Another example is Dhokra. This is a very old method of making metal statues using wax models. It is one of the oldest forms of metal casting in the world, dating back to the Harappan period.

This is a specific architectural style found in Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It was developed during the reign of the Solanki dynasty. The style is famous for its extremely detailed carvings. Unlike other styles, every inch of the white marble pillars and ceilings is decorated. The Dilwara and Ranakpur temples are the best examples of this rich architectural tradition.

This is the style of temple architecture found in North India. It features a curved tower called a Shikhara. There are usually no boundary walls around these temples. Example: The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho is a classic Nagara style building.

Definition

Folk and Tribal Dances of India are indigenous dance forms that emerge from the traditions, rituals, and daily lives of specific communities, often passed down through generations. Unlike classical dances, they are generally spontaneous, less structured, and performed by common people for celebrations, festivals, or religious ceremonies. They embody the collective spirit and cultural identity of a region or tribe.

Key Facts

India's diverse geography and cultural tapestry have given rise to thousands of folk and tribal dance forms. Here are some prominent examples crucial for UPSC:

• Garba (Gujarat): A devotional dance performed primarily during the Navratri festival, involving circular movements and clapping. It symbolizes the worship of the Goddess Durga.
• Ghoomar (Rajasthan): Traditionally performed by women of the Bhil tribe and later adopted by other Rajasthani communities. It involves graceful swirling movements and is often performed at weddings and festivals.
• Bihu (Assam): A lively dance associated with the Bihu festivals (Rongali, Bhogali, Kongali), celebrating fertility and the changing seasons. It is performed by both men and women with energetic steps and hand movements.
• Bhangra (Punjab): An energetic harvest dance performed by men, characterized by powerful movements, jumps, and shouts, often accompanied by the dhol drum. Gidda is its female counterpart, performed with grace and rhythm.
• Chhau (Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal): A semi-classical martial dance form with origins in indigenous martial practices. It is known for its elaborate masks (except in Mayurbhanj Chhau) and vigorous movements. It has three main styles: Seraikella Chhau (Jharkhand), Purulia Chhau (West Bengal), and Mayurbhanj Chhau (Odisha). It was inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
• Dollu Kunitha (Karnataka): A vigorous drum dance performed by men, often as part of religious processions or festivals. Performers wear large drums (dollu) and execute complex rhythms and formations.
• Rouf (Kashmir): A graceful folk dance performed by women during spring and other festive occasions. Dancers stand in two rows facing each other, moving their feet in rhythmic steps.
• Kalbelia (Rajasthan): Performed by the Kalbelia snake charmer community, this dance is characterized by sensual movements, elaborate costumes, and traditional music. It was also inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
• Lavani (Maharashtra): A popular folk dance performed by women, often accompanied by traditional Marathi songs. It can be both erotic and satirical, dealing with social and political themes.
• Theyyam (Kerala): A vibrant ritualistic dance form where the performer embodies a deity or a divine spirit. It involves elaborate makeup, headgear, and costumes, often performed in sacred groves (kavus).
• Yakshagana (Karnataka): A traditional folk theatre form combining dance, music, dialogue, costume, makeup, and stage techniques, typically based on mythological stories.
• Kolkali (Kerala): A stick dance performed by men, involving rhythmic striking of sticks and circular movements.
• Pulikali (Kerala): Also known as the Tiger Dance, performed during the Onam festival. Performers paint their bodies to resemble tigers and hunters, enacting hunting scenes.
• Cham Dance (Ladakh): A masked monastic dance performed by Buddhist monks in gompas (monasteries) during religious festivals. It depicts moral stories and the triumph of good over evil.

Exam Angle

For the UPSC exam, focus on associating specific dances with their respective states and understanding their unique characteristics (e.g., ritualistic, martial, harvest, masked). Pay attention to any UNESCO recognition, as this often features in questions. While the reference material discusses tribal revolts, it underscores the distinct identity and traditions of tribal communities, which are expressed through their dances. Understanding the context of these dances within community life is key. Also, be aware of the evolution of dance in India, including the contributions of figures like Uday Shankar to modern dance in India and fusion dance, which blends traditional Indian forms with Western techniques. This represents a contemporary aspect of India's performing arts landscape.

Definition

Classical dance forms in India are deeply rooted in ancient traditions, scriptures, and performing arts. While Bharatanatyam (originating from Tamil Nadu) is a prominent classical dance, historically known as Sadir and linked to the Devadasi tradition, its revival was significantly championed by Rukmini Devi Arundale. This study focuses on the classical dance forms primarily associated with North and Northeast India, namely Kathak, Manipuri, and Sattriya, each embodying unique cultural and spiritual narratives.

Key Facts

Kathak

• Origin: Primarily from Uttar Pradesh, Kathak literally means 'storyteller' (from 'Katha'). It evolved from temple performances to court entertainment during the Mughal era.
• Themes: Narrates stories from Hindu epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Krishna legends, and later incorporated Persian and Urdu poetry.
• Key Features: Characterized by intricate footwork (tatkar), rapid pirouettes (chakkar), expressive hand gestures (mudras), and facial expressions (abhinaya). The dancer often interacts with the tabla player.
• Gharanas: Three main schools or gharanas developed:
  • Lucknow Gharana: Known for grace, elegance, and emphasis on bhava (expression). Patronized by Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
  • Jaipur Gharana: Emphasizes intricate and powerful footwork, speed, and complex rhythmic patterns.
  • Benares Gharana: A blend of both, with a focus on natwari (Krishna's dance) and a more grounded style.
• Prominent Exponent: The legendary Birju Maharaj was a leading figure of the Lucknow gharana, instrumental in popularizing Kathak globally.

Manipuri

• Origin: From the northeastern state of Manipur, it is deeply spiritual and devotional.
• Themes: Primarily based on Vaishnavism, particularly the Ras Lila depicting the divine love story of Radha and Krishna. It also includes Sankirtana (devotional singing and drumming).
• Key Features: Distinguished by its gentle, fluid, and undulating movements, avoiding sharp jerks or sudden turns. The whole body moves as one unit. Dancers wear a unique cylindrical skirt called Potloi.
• Music: Accompanied by the Pung (Manipuri drum), Kartal (cymbals), and flute.
• Prominent Exponents: The Jhaveri sisters (Nayana, Ranjana, Suverna, Darshana) played a significant role in popularizing Manipuri dance.

Sattriya

• Origin: From Assam, it was created in the 15th century by the great Vaishnavite saint and reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva as a medium for propagating the Neo-Vaishnavite faith.
• Context: Traditionally performed in Sattras (monasteries) by male monks (Bhokots). Women were later allowed to perform.
• Themes: Primarily devotional, narrating stories from the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, focusing on Krishna and Vishnu.
• Key Features: Characterized by its unique bhava (expression), mudras (hand gestures), and chali (gaits). It combines both masculine (Paurushik) and feminine (Stri) styles. The costumes are typically made of pat (silk) and muga (golden silk).
• Music: Accompanied by Borgeet (devotional songs), Khol (drum), and Taal (cymbals).
• Recognition: Recognized as a classical dance form by the Sangeet Natak Akademi in 2000.

Exam Angle

UPSC often asks about the origin, key features, associated gharanas/styles, and prominent personalities of classical dance forms. Distinguishing between the nuances of movement, costume, and musical accompaniment is crucial. Understanding the socio-religious context, such as the influence of the Bhakti movement on Kathak and Sattriya, and Vaishnavism on Manipuri, provides deeper insights.

Classical Dance Forms: South & East India

Classical dance forms of India are deeply rooted in ancient traditions, scriptures, and local customs, evolving over centuries to become sophisticated art forms. They are recognized by the Sangeet Natak Akademi and represent a rich cultural heritage. This section focuses on prominent classical dances from South and East India.

Kathakali (Kerala)

Kathakali is a highly stylized classical Indian dance-drama from Kerala. It is renowned for its elaborate make-up, vibrant costumes, detailed gestures (mudras), and well-defined body movements. The word 'Kathakali' literally means 'story-play'.

• Origin: Developed in the 17th century, drawing elements from ancient ritualistic art forms like Krishnanattam and Ramanattam.
• Key Features:
  • Vesham (Costume & Makeup): Characters are categorized by specific facial paints and costumes (e.g., Pacha for noble heroes, Kathi for villains).
  • Mudras: Hand gestures are highly codified, conveying complex narratives.
  • Expressions (Abhinaya): Exaggerated facial expressions are crucial for storytelling.
  • Music: Accompanied by Carnatic music, percussion instruments like Chenda and Maddalam.
  • Themes: Primarily drawn from Hindu epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas.
• Revival: Vallathol Narayana Menon played a pivotal role in its modern revival by establishing the Kerala Kalamandalam in 1930, ensuring its preservation and promotion.

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)

Kuchipudi is a classical dance form originating from the village of Kuchipudi in Andhra Pradesh. It is a blend of dance, music, and drama.

• Origin: Traces its roots to ancient Sanskrit texts and was systematized by Siddhendra Yogi in the 17th century with his composition, Bhama Kalapam.
• Key Features:
  • Nritta, Nritya, Natya: Incorporates pure dance, expressive dance, and dramatic elements.
  • Tarangams: A unique feature where the dancer performs on a brass plate, moving it with their feet.
  • Vachikabhinaya: Importance of spoken dialogue, though often performed as a solo presentation today.
  • Costumes: Lighter costumes compared to Kathakali, often made of silk with temple jewelry.
  • Music: Performed to Carnatic music.
• Themes: Predominantly devotional, narrating stories of Krishna and other Hindu deities.

Odissi (Odisha)

Odissi is one of the oldest surviving classical dance forms of India, originating from the temples of Odisha. It is characterized by its lyrical grace and sculptural poses.

• Origin: Developed by Devadasis (Maharis) in temples and later by Gotipuas (young boys dressed as girls).
• Key Features:
  • Tribhanga: The body is deflected at three points – head, bust, and torso – creating a graceful 'S' shape.
  • Chowk: A square-like stance, symbolizing masculinity and stability.
  • Bhava, Rasa, Abhinaya: Emphasis on emotional expression and storytelling.
  • Costumes: Brightly colored silk sarees, silver jewelry, and intricate hair ornaments.
  • Music: Accompanied by Odissi music, a distinct classical tradition.
• Revival: Post-independence, Kelucharan Mohapatra and Sanjukta Panigrahi were instrumental in its reconstruction and popularization globally.

Mohiniyattam (Kerala)

Mohiniyattam is a graceful, feminine classical dance form from Kerala, characterized by its gentle and swaying movements.

• Origin: Its name literally means 'dance of the enchantress'. It is believed to have evolved in the 18th-19th centuries under the patronage of rulers like Swati Tirunal.
• Key Features:
  • Lasya: Emphasizes grace, elegance, and feminine charm, contrasting with the vigorous Tandava elements.
  • Swaying Movements: Characterized by gentle, undulating body movements, particularly of the torso.
  • Costumes: White or off-white saree with gold borders, minimal makeup, and simple jewelry.
  • Music: Performed to Carnatic music, often with a slower tempo.
  • Themes: Devotional, often depicting the love and longing of a devotee for the divine.
• Revival: Like Kathakali, Kerala Kalamandalam played a significant role in its revival and formalization in the 20th century.

Exam Angle

UPSC often asks about the state of origin, key features, and prominent personalities associated with classical dance forms. Understanding the historical context, revival efforts, and unique characteristics of each dance is crucial for both Prelims (matching pairs, factual questions) and Mains (cultural heritage, art forms).

Definition

Classical Indian dance is a highly codified and spiritual art form, deeply rooted in ancient texts and traditions. It is not merely entertainment but a pathway to spiritual experience (rasa) through the depiction of emotions (bhava) and stories, often mythological or devotional.

Key Texts and Authors

• Natyashastra: This foundational treatise on performing arts, attributed to Bharata Muni (dated between 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE), is often revered as the 'fifth Veda'. It comprehensively covers dramaturgy, music, and dance, detailing aspects from stage construction to aesthetic theory (rasa-bhava siddhanta).
• Abhinaya Darpana: Authored by Nandikeshvara (likely between 10th and 13th centuries CE), this text specifically focuses on abhinaya (expression) and mudras (hand gestures). It serves as a practical guide for dancers, elaborating on the grammar of gestures and their meanings, supplementing the broader principles laid out in the Natyashastra.

Fundamental Elements of Dance

Indian classical dance is broadly categorized into three core components:

• Nritta: This refers to pure dance, characterized by abstract, rhythmic movements and aesthetic patterns. It focuses on form, line, and beauty, without conveying any explicit meaning or emotion. Examples include the intricate footwork and geometric poses in a Bharatanatyam 'jati'.
• Nritya: This is expressive dance that conveys meaning, mood, and emotion. It uses abhinaya (facial expressions) and mudras (hand gestures) to interpret a song, poem, or story. The dancer becomes a storyteller, evoking specific sentiments in the audience.
• Natya: This is the dramatic element, the overarching theatrical representation that combines nritta and nritya with dialogue, costumes, and stagecraft to enact a play or a complete story. It represents the full spectrum of performance, where the dancer embodies a character.

Divine Origins and Styles

Two primary stylistic categories are recognized, often associated with divine figures:

• Tandava: A vigorous, masculine dance form traditionally associated with Lord Shiva. It embodies cosmic cycles of creation, preservation, and destruction, characterized by powerful, energetic, and often awe-inspiring movements.
• Lasya: A graceful, feminine dance form traditionally associated with Goddess Parvati, Shiva's consort. It represents beauty, tenderness, sensuality, and delicate emotions, characterized by gentle, lyrical, and fluid movements.

Ashta Nayika

• The Ashta Nayika concept, detailed in texts like the Natyashastra and later elaborated in works like Jayadeva's Gita Govinda, describes eight archetypal states or situations of a heroine (Nayika) in relation to her lover (Nayaka). These eight emotional states form a crucial part of nritya and natya, providing a framework for dancers to express a wide range of human emotions and narratives. Each Nayika represents a distinct emotional nuance, from anticipation to separation, anger, or reunion, allowing for profound emotional depth in performance.

Exam Angle

Understanding these foundational texts and concepts is critical for UPSC aspirants. Questions often test the distinctions between nritta, nritya, natya, the authors of key texts, and the significance of concepts like Tandava, Lasya, and Ashta Nayika in the evolution and practice of Indian classical dance forms. The philosophical underpinnings of rasa and bhava are also important.

Bhasa is considered the father of Indian drama and wrote 13 plays. Shudraka wrote 'Mrichchhakatika,' which means 'The Little Clay Cart.' It is unique because it tells a story about a common man, not a king. Kalidasa wrote 'Malavikagnimitram,' which deals with royal love. Knowing these names is essential because UPSC often asks you to match the author with their correct literary work.

Miniature paintings are very small but highly detailed artworks. To be called a miniature, the painting must not be larger than 25 square inches. The human figures in these paintings are shown as very small, usually 1/6th of the actual size. They were often painted on palm leaves or paper. The Mughal School is the most famous example. They used fine brushes made from squirrel hair to create intricate details of birds, animals, and court scenes.

Many Indian festivals are centered around famous temples. The 'Ratha Yatra' of Puri is a famous chariot festival dedicated to Lord Jagannath. In Kerala, 'Thrissur Pooram' is a grand temple festival known for decorated elephants and fireworks. These festivals often receive government support to promote cultural tourism. They reflect the architectural and religious history of the region.

Historically, many classical dances like Bharatnatyam and Odissi were part of the 'Devadasi' tradition. Devadasis were women 'married' to the temple deity. They spent their lives learning music and dance to serve the temple. During the British period, this system was banned and the dances were looked down upon. Leaders like Rukmini Devi Arundale helped move the dance from temples to modern stages, giving it the respect it has today.

Unlike modern buildings that start from the foundation, rock-cut temples were carved from the top. Workers started at the peak of the hill and cut deep into the rock. This allowed them to create ceilings first. It also meant they did not need scaffolding to reach high places. The workers slowly moved to the floor level.

The Trinity refers to three great composers of the 18th century: Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri. They all lived in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. They created thousands of 'Kritis' (compositions). Tyagaraja is famous for his 'Pancharatna Kritis'. Muthuswami Dikshitar wrote many songs in Sanskrit praising various temples. Syama Sastri is known for his complex rhythms. Their work defines the modern Carnatic music we hear today.

The Dravida style belongs to South India. These temples are known for their massive boundary walls. The main entrance has a very tall and decorated tower called a 'Gopuram'. The main temple tower is called a 'Vimana', which looks like a stepped pyramid. Most Dravida temples have a large water tank called a 'Temple Tank' inside the walls. The Meenakshi Temple in Madurai is a great example.

The Nagara style is the temple architecture of North India. These temples are built on a stone platform called 'Jagati'. They have a curved tower called a 'Shikhara' that looks like a mountain peak. On top of the Shikhara, there is a stone disc called an 'Amalaka'. These temples usually do not have large boundary walls or water tanks inside. A famous example is the Sun Temple at Konark.

These are the three basic elements of dance. Nritta refers to basic dance steps performed to a rhythm (Tala) without any hidden meaning or story. It is 'pure dance.' Nritya is 'interpretive dance' where the dancer uses hand gestures and facial expressions to explain the meaning of the song. Natya is the 'dramatic' element where a story is told through multiple characters. For example, a dancer performing Nritta just moves to the beat, but in Nritya, they might use their hands to show a blooming flower.

While Sanskrit was the language of the elite, Pali and Prakrit were the languages of the common people. Lord Buddha preached in Pali, leading to the creation of the Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Jain monks used Prakrit to write their holy Agamas. This shift allowed religious teachings to spread quickly among the masses who found Sanskrit too difficult to learn.

These are dances that evolved from traditional fighting styles. Instead of weapons used for war, they use sticks, swords, or shields for performance. Examples include 'Gatka' from Punjab and 'Paika' from Odisha. These dances demonstrate the bravery and physical strength of a community. Examiners often ask about the specific weapons used or the community that performs them.

A Gharana is a system of social organization linking musicians by lineage or apprenticeship. It represents a specific style of singing or playing an instrument passed through generations. Famous examples include the Gwalior Gharana and the Jaipur-Atrauli Gharana. This system ensures that traditional musical knowledge remains pure and consistent.

This is the primary law in India for protecting geographical indications. It was passed in 1999 but came into full effect in September 2003. The law ensures that only authorized users from the specific region can use the popular product name. This prevents the 'unfair competition' where outsiders sell fake goods using a famous name. For example, only weavers in the Chanderi region of Madhya Pradesh can legally sell 'Chanderi Sarees'.

Monolithic means 'single stone'. In this style, a whole building is carved out of one massive rock. No separate blocks or cement are used. The Kailash Temple at Ellora is the world's largest monolithic structure. Another example is the Five Rathas at Mahabalipuram, where each chariot is one single stone piece.

Sanskrit drama reached its peak in ancient India. Bhasa is considered one of the earliest playwrights. He wrote plays based on the Mahabharata. Bhavabhuti was another master who wrote 'Uttararamacharita'. Examiners often ask you to identify these names from a list of monks, architects, or poets. Always remember them as 'Playwrights' or 'Dramatists'.

Ayagapata is a type of votive tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship. These were mostly found in Mathura during the Kushana period. They are stone slabs decorated with religious symbols like the Swastika or images of Tirthankaras. These tablets are the earliest examples of Jain icons. They show how the community started moving from symbolic art to human-shaped statues.

GI tags are not limited to just one type of item. They are divided into several categories. These include Agricultural (like Basmati Rice), Natural (like Makrana Marble), Handicrafts (like Mysore Silk), and Manufactured goods (like Kannauj Perfume). This wide range shows how deep Indian traditional knowledge goes across different sectors of the economy.

This reached its peak during the Gupta period. These plays usually have a happy ending and follow strict rules of grammar and emotion. A unique feature is the use of different languages: high-ranking characters speak Sanskrit, while women and lower-class characters speak Prakrit. A key figure is Bhasa, whose play 'Madhyama-vyayoga' is based on a story from the Mahabharata.

While most Indian temples are square or rectangular, some are circular. The Chausath Yogini Temple in Mitaoli, Madhya Pradesh, is a famous circular temple. It was built by the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty in the 11th century. It has 64 small shrines dedicated to Yoginis. Many people believe this circular design inspired the architecture of the old Indian Parliament building in New Delhi.

Kayotsarga is a unique standing meditative pose in Jain art. The word means 'giving up the body'. In this pose, the Tirthankara stands perfectly straight with arms hanging down. The arms do not touch the body. This signifies that the person is so deep in meditation that they have forgotten their physical self. The Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola is the most famous example of this pose.

UNESCO recognizes traditions that represent a community's living culture. This is called 'Intangible Heritage'. It includes oral traditions, performing arts, and rituals. India has 15 items on this list. Recent additions include Garba (2024), Durga Puja (2021), and Kumbh Mela (2017). For the exam, knowing the year of inclusion is helpful for chronological questions.

Most Hindu temples are square-shaped. However, temples dedicated to the 'Yogini' cult are often circular. The Chausath Yogini Temple in Morena, Madhya Pradesh, is the best example. It was built by the Kachchhapaghata kings. Its circular layout with many small shrines inside is unique. This specific temple is famous for its visual similarity to the old Parliament house in Delhi.

These represent the two ends of the emotional spectrum in dance. Tandava is the 'masculine' style. It is characterized by sharp, forceful movements and high energy, symbolizing the cycle of creation and destruction. Lasya is the 'feminine' style, characterized by soft, fluid, and circular movements. Most classical dances are a mix of both. For example, Kathakali is predominantly Tandava (strong and loud), while Mohiniyattam is predominantly Lasya (graceful and gentle).

India has a long history of making cloth. Every region has a special style. For example, Kalamkari from Andhra Pradesh uses hand-painted or block-printed designs. It uses natural dyes made from plants. Another example is Sambalpuri Saree from Odisha, known for its 'Ikat' or tie-dye patterns. These textiles show the high skill level of Indian weavers and are a major part of India's exports today.

These festivals celebrate the successful gathering of crops. They usually occur in January or April. While the reason is the same, names differ by state. For example, 'Makar Sankranti' is celebrated in Central India, 'Lohri' in Punjab, 'Pongal' in Tamil Nadu, and 'Bihu' in Assam. UPSC often asks students to match these names with their respective states in 'match the following' questions.

This refers to the earliest Tamil literature produced between 300 BCE and 300 CE. It was composed in 'Sangams' or assemblies of poets under the Pandyan kings. The poems are divided into two categories: 'Aham' (internal/love) and 'Puram' (external/war). Famous works include 'Silappadikaram' and 'Manimekalai'. These texts provide deep insights into the early history of South India and its trade relations with Rome.

This is a list maintained by UNESCO to protect important cultural traditions that are not physical buildings. It includes oral traditions, performing arts, and rituals. India has 15 elements on this list, including Vedic Chanting, Yoga, and Kumbh Mela. In 2024, Garba was highlighted in the UPSC prelims because it was the most recent addition. Knowing this list is essential for scoring well in the Culture section.

A Raga is a unique sequence of notes that forms a melody. It is not just a scale; it represents a specific emotion, time of day, or season. For example, 'Raga Deepak' is associated with fire, and 'Raga Megh' is associated with rain. Each Raga must have at least five notes to be valid in the Indian system.

Pottery is one of the oldest human crafts. In India, it varies from simple red pots to decorative glazed pottery. Blue Pottery from Jaipur is unique because it does not use clay. Instead, it uses ground quartz and glass. The beautiful blue color comes from cobalt oxide. In contrast, Khurja pottery from Uttar Pradesh is known for its glazed ceramic items used in modern kitchens.

Some folk dances use colorful masks to represent characters from mythology or nature. 'Chhau' is the most prominent mask dance of India. The masks are usually made of clay and paper. They help the dancer express emotions without using facial expressions. Other examples include 'Padayani' from Kerala, which uses huge masks made from palm leaves. These are often performed in temple courtyards.

This refers to three legendary composers of South Indian music who lived in the late 18th century. They are Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri. They are credited with creating the foundational compositions of modern Carnatic music. Their work is still performed in every major South Indian musical festival today.

Bharata Muni wrote the Natyashastra to guide performers. The core concept is 'Rasa,' which means the essence of an emotion. When an actor performs, the audience should feel a specific emotion. Originally, there were eight Rasas. Later, a ninth one called 'Shanta' (peace) was added. For example, a comedy play aims to create 'Hasya Rasa' or the feeling of laughter. This theory is still used in Indian classical dances today.

Sanskrit theatre was performed in royal courts for educated people. It followed strict rules and used formal language. In contrast, Folk Theatre is for the general public in villages. It is more flexible and uses local dialects. For example, 'Yakshagana' in Karnataka is a folk form that tells stories from the Ramayana. It uses heavy makeup and loud drums to attract large crowds in open fields.

Mural paintings are large-scale artworks executed directly on walls or ceilings. The word 'Mural' comes from the Latin word 'murus' meaning wall. These paintings are durable and stay for a long time. In India, most murals are found in caves or temples. Artists used natural minerals to make colors. For example, the Ajanta caves in Maharashtra have world-famous murals depicting the life of Buddha. These paintings help us understand the clothing and lifestyle of ancient Indians.

In Buddhist rock-cut architecture, there are two main types of rooms. A Chaitya is a long hall used for group prayer. It usually has a small stupa at one end. A Vihara is a monastery where monks lived. It has a central hall with small cells or bedrooms on the sides. For example, Karle Chaitya is a famous prayer hall.

This is a 14th-century circular temple in Madhya Pradesh. It was built by the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty. It has 64 small chambers dedicated to Yoginis. It is famous because its shape looks very similar to the old Indian Parliament house. Example: The Chausath Yogini temple at Mitawali is the most well-known circular temple.

This is a list by UNESCO to protect traditions and living expressions. It includes things like yoga, Vedic chanting, and dances. These are not buildings but are part of culture. Example: Garba dance from Gujarat was added to this list in 2024.