International Environmental Agreements
Concepts (25)
The UNFCCC established the framework, while the Paris Agreement (2015) set a global goal to limit warming to 1.5°C via Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), transparency, and a Global Stocktake,
Definition
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio, serves as the foundational international treaty to combat climate change. It provides the framework for international cooperation to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 at COP21 in Paris, is a landmark legally binding international treaty under the UNFCCC, aiming to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change.
Key Facts
- Long-Term Temperature Goal: The Paris Agreement's central aim is to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. This is enshrined in Article 2.
- Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Unlike previous agreements, the Paris Agreement operates on a 'bottom-up' approach where countries submit their own Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), outlining their climate action plans, including emission reduction targets and adaptation measures. These are self-determined and represent each country's highest possible ambition.
- Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC): The Agreement reaffirms the principle of CBDR-RC, recognizing different national circumstances while requiring all parties to contribute. This addresses the North-South divide on climate by acknowledging developed countries' historical responsibility and greater capacity.
- Global Stocktake: To assess collective progress towards the Agreement's long-term goals, a Global Stocktake is conducted every five years. The first Global Stocktake concluded at COP28 in 2023, informing countries for their next round of NDCs.
- Climate Finance: Developed countries committed to a goal of mobilizing USD 100 billion annually in climate finance for developing countries by 2020, extended to 2025. While developed countries reported providing USD 115.9 billion in 2022, these figures are widely contested, with actual provision estimated much lower (e.g., USD 28–35 billion). Article 9 of the Paris Agreement addresses climate finance, and recent discussions at COP30 in Belem, Brazil, focused on establishing a work programme under Article 9.1 to clarify obligations.
- Loss and Damage Fund: The Agreement also addresses Loss and Damage, recognizing the impacts of climate change that go beyond adaptation. A dedicated Loss and Damage Fund was operationalized at COP28.
Mechanism
The Paris Agreement functions through a cyclical mechanism:
- Submission of NDCs: Countries regularly submit their NDCs, outlining their climate pledges.
- Implementation: Parties implement their NDCs through national policies and measures.
- Transparency Framework: An enhanced transparency framework (under Article 13) requires countries to report regularly on their emissions and progress towards their NDCs, fostering accountability and trust.
- Global Stocktake: Every five years, the Global Stocktake assesses the collective progress towards the Agreement's long-term goals, identifying gaps and informing future, more ambitious NDCs.
- Ratchet Mechanism: The Agreement includes a 'ratchet mechanism' where NDCs are expected to become progressively more ambitious over time, preventing backsliding.
Exam Angle
UPSC frequently tests understanding of the Paris Agreement's core components: the 1.5°C goal, NDCs, Global Stocktake, CBDR-RC, and climate finance commitments. Questions often involve distinguishing it from previous agreements, analyzing India's NDCs, or discussing challenges like the North-South divide and the adequacy of climate finance and the Loss and Damage Fund.
Analysis
The Paris Agreement represents a significant evolution in global climate governance. Moving beyond the Kyoto Protocol's top-down, legally binding emission reduction targets primarily for developed countries, Paris adopted a universal, bottom-up approach. This shift, driven by the recognition that all countries must participate, allowed for greater flexibility and broader participation. However, it also introduced challenges, particularly regarding the ambition and comparability of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and the persistent issue of climate finance. The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC) is central, acknowledging historical emissions and varying capacities, yet its interpretation remains a point of contention, especially concerning financial obligations and technology transfer from developed to developing nations. The North-South divide on climate continues to manifest in these discussions.
Comparison Table
| Feature | UNFCCC (1992) | Kyoto Protocol (1997) | Paris Agreement (2015) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nature | Framework Convention | Legally binding protocol | Legally binding agreement under UNFCCC |
| Scope | Universal, non-binding targets | Binding targets for Annex I (developed) countries | Universal, all parties submit NDCs |
| Approach | Top-down framework | Top-down, legally binding targets | Bottom-up (NDCs), universally applicable |
| Targets | No specific targets | Quantified Emission Limitation and Reduction Objectives (QELROs) for Annex I | Self-determined NDCs, progressively ambitious |
| Principles | CBDR | CBDR | CBDR-RC (in light of national circumstances) |
| Compliance | Non-binding | Compliance mechanism for Annex I | Enhanced Transparency Framework, Global Stocktake |
| Key Mechanisms | COPs, subsidiary bodies | Emissions trading, Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint Implementation (JI) | NDCs, Global Stocktake, Transparency Framework, Adaptation Communication, Loss and Damage |
| Long-term Goal | Stabilize GHG concentrations | Reduce Annex I GHG emissions by 5.2% below 1990 levels (2008-2012) | Limit warming to well below 2°C, pursue 1.5°C |
Case Study: India's Role and NDCs
India has been a proactive participant in global climate negotiations, emphasizing climate justice and the principle of CBDR-RC. At COP21 in Paris, India announced its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), which were later formalized as NDCs. Key commitments include:
- To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels.
- To achieve about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030.
- To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
India also took the initiative to launch the International Solar Alliance (ISA) jointly with France on November 30, 2015, on the sidelines of COP21. The ISA aims to promote solar energy deployment in solar-resource-rich countries, demonstrating India's commitment to cleaner energy pathways.
Mains Hooks
- Climate Justice and Equity: The ongoing debate on CBDR-RC, historical responsibility, and the adequacy of climate finance directly relates to climate justice, especially for vulnerable developing nations. The Loss and Damage Fund is a critical step in this direction.
- Green Finance and Technology Transfer: The success of the Paris Agreement heavily relies on the provision of adequate and predictable climate finance and the transfer of green technologies from developed to developing countries. This links to discussions on reforming Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) and innovative financial mechanisms.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Climate action under the Paris Agreement is intrinsically linked to achieving several SDGs, particularly SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG 13 (climate action), and SDG 17 (partnerships for the goals).
- Geopolitics of Climate Change: The North-South divide and varying national interests shape the pace and ambition of global climate action, impacting international relations and trade.
Recent Developments
- COP28 (2023): Concluded the first Global Stocktake, which highlighted that the world is off track to meet the 1.5°C goal. It also operationalized the Loss and Damage Fund and agreed on a 'transition away' from fossil fuels.
- COP30 (2025) in Belem, Brazil: A significant outcome was the decision on Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement, establishing a two-year work programme under the COP. This aims to shift focus back to obligations rather than private investments being counted as climate finance, addressing long-standing concerns about the transparency and adequacy of the USD 100 billion annual climate finance goal.
- Contested Climate Finance Figures: The disparity between reported (e.g., OECD's USD 115.9 billion in 2022) and actual (e.g., Oxfam's USD 28–35 billion) climate finance provision remains a critical issue, undermining trust and hindering effective climate action in developing countries.
Emission intensity measures the volume of greenhouse gases emitted for every unit of economic output (GDP). If a country grows its economy while using cleaner technology, its emission intensity decreases.
Emission intensity measures the volume of greenhouse gases emitted for every unit of economic output (GDP). If a country grows its economy while using cleaner technology, its emission intensity decreases. India aims to reduce this by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030. For example, a factory producing more steel using solar power instead of coal reduces the country's emission intensity.
These are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect. The primary GHGs covered by international climate talks include Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O).
These are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect. The primary GHGs covered by international climate talks include Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). While some GHGs occur naturally, human activities like burning coal and deforestation have greatly increased their concentration, causing the planet to heat up rapidly.
Key global biodiversity and wildlife conventions like CBD, Ramsar, CITES, and CMS aim to conserve species, habitats, and regulate trade, crucial for sustainable development.
International Environmental Agreements (IEAs) play a critical role in addressing global environmental challenges, particularly in biodiversity conservation and wildlife protection. These conventions establish legal frameworks and foster international cooperation to tackle issues that transcend national borders.
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1993, the CBD is a legally binding multilateral treaty with three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. It recognizes the sovereign rights of states over their natural resources. The CBD operates through its Conference of Parties (COP), which meets periodically to review progress and make decisions. Key protocols under CBD include the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000), focusing on the safe handling, transport, and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs), and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (2010), which provides a transparent legal framework for implementing the third objective of the CBD. The Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010-2020) were a strategic plan for biodiversity, succeeded by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) adopted at COP15 in 2022, setting ambitious new targets like the '30x30' goal to protect 30% of land and sea by 2030.
2. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971 and entered into force in 1975, this intergovernmental treaty provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. It is unique as it focuses on a specific ecosystem. Contracting Parties commit to designating suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites) and promoting their 'wise use.' The Montreux Record, maintained as part of the Ramsar List, identifies Ramsar Sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur due to human interference.
3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): Signed in Washington D.C. in 1973 and entered into force in 1975, CITES aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. It regulates trade through a system of permits and certificates for species listed in its three Appendices: * Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction; trade is generally prohibited except under exceptional circumstances. * Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened with extinction but for which trade must be controlled to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival. * Appendix III: Species protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling trade.
4. Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention: Concluded in Bonn, Germany, in 1979 and entered into force in 1983, CMS aims to conserve terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species throughout their range. It provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats. Similar to CITES, it lists species in two Appendices: * Appendix I (Endangered Migratory Species): Parties strive to strictly protect these species, conserve or restore their habitats, mitigate obstacles to migration, and control other factors endangering them. * Appendix II (Migratory Species requiring international cooperation): Parties are encouraged to conclude international agreements for their conservation and management. CMS COP14, held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, in February 2024, saw the adoption of the Samarkand Strategic Plan for Migr2atory Species and the Brazzaville Declaration on transboundary conservation, along with new species listings.
These conventions work through regular COPs, scientific committees, and national implementation. Prelims often test specific dates, locations, protocols, appendices, and key terms (e.g., Montreux Record, wise use). Mains questions often revolve around their effectiveness, challenges in implementation (e.g., funding, enforcement, sovereignty issues), and their linkages to sustainable development goals.
geo-map-Major Ramsar Sites in India
International biodiversity and wildlife conventions represent a cornerstone of global environmental governance, each addressing distinct facets of conservation while often operating in a complementary manner. Their effectiveness, however, is frequently debated, highlighting both successes and persistent challenges.
Detailed Analysis & Comparison:
CBD (Holistic Ecosystem Approach): The CBD is the most comprehensive, covering all aspects of biodiversity. Its strength lies in its broad scope and recognition of national sovereignty, which encourages participation but can also hinder enforcement. The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), adopted at COP15 in December 2022, is a landmark agreement with 23 targets, including the ambitious '30x30' target to conserve 30% of the world's land and sea by 2030. This framework aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030. Funding mechanisms like the Global Environment Facility (GEF) are crucial for supporting developing countries in implementing CBD objectives. A major challenge for CBD remains the gap between ambitious targets and actual implementation, particularly regarding financial resources and capacity building in developing nations. For instance, the target to halt species extinction by 2020 under the Aichi Targets was largely missed.
Ramsar Convention (Specific Habitat Focus): The Ramsar Convention's focus on wetlands is unique. Wetlands are vital ecosystems, providing services like water purification, flood control, and biodiversity hotspots. India, with over 80 Ramsar Sites (e.g., Chilika Lake, Sunderbans, Vembanad-Kol Wetland), is a significant party. The 'wise use' concept, central to Ramsar, means sustainable utilization for the benefit of humankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem. The Montreux Record serves as an early warning system, highlighting sites facing severe ecological threats. Challenges for Ramsar include land-use change, pollution, and invasive species impacting wetland health.
CITES (Trade Regulation): CITES directly tackles the economic drivers of biodiversity loss – illegal wildlife trade. The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars annually, often linked to organized crime, as highlighted by the UNODC's World Wildlife Crime Report. CITES's permit system, enforced by national customs and wildlife authorities, aims to control this. Appendix I species, like tigers and rhinos, have almost zero commercial trade allowed, while Appendix II species, such as African elephants (for ivory in some limited contexts) or certain timber species, require permits to ensure sustainability. The challenge lies in enforcement, combating poaching, and addressing demand in consumer countries. India plays a crucial role, being home to many CITES-listed species, and faces significant challenges from poaching and illegal trade in products like pangolin scales, tiger parts, and red sanders.
CMS (Migratory Species Focus): The Bonn Convention addresses species that cross national boundaries, requiring concerted international effort. It recognizes that conservation efforts in one country can be undermined if other countries along a migratory route do not also protect the species. Examples include migratory birds, marine mammals (e.g., dolphins, whales), and terrestrial species like elephants or wild asses. CMS COP14 in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (February 2024), was significant. It adopted the Samarkand Strategic Plan for Migratory Species 2024-2032, aimed at improving the conservation status of migratory species. The Brazzaville Declaration, signed by African nations at COP14, emphasized transboundary conservation efforts, particularly for species like elephants and great apes. The KAZA (Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area) summit, also linked to CMS, highlights regional cooperation for large migratory mammal populations. New species like the Eurasian Lynx and the European Eel were added to CMS Appendices at COP14, reflecting expanding conservation priorities.
Mains Essay Angles & Arguments:
- Effectiveness of IEAs: Argument: While conventions provide legal frameworks and foster cooperation, their effectiveness is limited by national sovereignty, insufficient funding, weak enforcement, and lack of political will. Counter-argument: They have raised global awareness, established norms, facilitated scientific research, and led to tangible conservation successes in specific cases (e.g., recovery of certain CITES-listed species). The Kunming-Montreal GBF offers renewed hope with its ambitious targets.
- India's Role and Challenges: Argument: India is a megadiverse country and a party to all major conventions, demonstrating commitment through national laws (e.g., Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Biological Diversity Act, 2002) and conservation projects (e.g., Project Tiger, Project Dolphin). Challenges: High population pressure, habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, illegal wildlife trade, and climate change impacts pose significant hurdles to meeting international obligations.
- Combating Illegal Wildlife Trade: Argument: It requires a multi-faceted approach involving CITES enforcement, intelligence sharing (Interpol, UNODC), demand reduction campaigns, community engagement, and addressing root causes like poverty and corruption. Challenge: The sophisticated nature of organized crime and the vast profits involved make it difficult to eradicate.
Recent Developments: The Kunming-Montreal GBF (CBD COP15) and the outcomes of CMS COP14 (Samarkand Strategic Plan, Brazzaville Declaration, new species listings) are critical recent developments. The UN Forum on Forests (UNFF) also plays a role in sustainable forest management, which indirectly supports biodiversity conservation, often intersecting with CBD goals.
This is an important update to the Montreal Protocol signed in 2016. It focuses on Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). HFCs were used to replace CFCs because they are safe for the ozone layer.
This is an important update to the Montreal Protocol signed in 2016. It focuses on Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). HFCs were used to replace CFCs because they are safe for the ozone layer. However, they are powerful greenhouse gases that cause global warming. This amendment aims to reduce HFC use to help keep the global temperature rise below 0.5 degrees Celsius.
Adopted in 2022, this framework replaced the older Aichi Targets. it contains 4 main goals and 23 targets for 2030. The most famous target is protecting 30% of the planet's land and water by 2030.
Adopted in 2022, this framework replaced the older Aichi Targets. it contains 4 main goals and 23 targets for 2030. The most famous target is protecting 30% of the planet's land and water by 2030. It also aims to reduce food waste by half and reduce the risk from pesticides.
This term refers to the three conventions born from the 1992 Earth Summit. They are the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
This term refers to the three conventions born from the 1992 Earth Summit. They are the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). They are called triplets because they are linked. For example, climate change leads to land degradation, which then causes biodiversity loss. Protecting one helps protect the others.
Net Zero refers to a state where the amount of greenhouse gases produced by a country is equal to the amount removed from the atmosphere. It does not mean zero emissions, but rather a balance.
Net Zero refers to a state where the amount of greenhouse gases produced by a country is equal to the amount removed from the atmosphere. It does not mean zero emissions, but rather a balance. If a country emits 100 units of carbon, it must remove 100 units via forests or technology. India aims to reach this balance point by 2070.
The atmosphere has different layers. The 'Good Ozone' is found in the Stratosphere, which is 10 to 50 kilometers above the ground. This layer absorbs 97% of the sun's high-frequency ultraviolet light.
The atmosphere has different layers. The 'Good Ozone' is found in the Stratosphere, which is 10 to 50 kilometers above the ground. This layer absorbs 97% of the sun's high-frequency ultraviolet light. Ozone at the ground level (Troposphere) is actually harmful 'bad ozone' because it acts as a pollutant and causes breathing problems.
International environmental organizations drive global governance on climate, biodiversity, and land, fostering cooperation and setting norms for sustainable development.
Definition
International Environmental Organizations (IEOs) are intergovernmental or non-governmental bodies that address global environmental challenges through cooperation, policy formulation, and implementation. They are crucial for international environmental governance, facilitating agreements, monitoring compliance, and building capacity among nations.
Key Facts
- Earth Summit 1992 (Rio de Janeiro): A pivotal moment, leading to the establishment of key conventions and strengthening the role of IEOs. It emphasized sustainable development.
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Established in 1972 after the Stockholm Conference, UNEP is the leading global environmental authority within the UN system. It sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the UN system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.
- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): While focusing on poverty reduction and sustainable development, UNDP integrates environmental sustainability into its development programs, supporting countries in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including those related to climate action and biodiversity.
- Rio Conventions: Three key legally binding conventions emerged from the Earth Summit:
- United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Adopted in 1992, it aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. It led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
- United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Established in 1994, it is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management. India ratified it in December 1996 and is a key party addressing land degradation and desertification.
- Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Adopted in 1992, it aims for the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. It led to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing.
- Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): Founded in 1961, it is a leading organization in wildlife conservation and endangered species protection.
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Established in 1948, it is a membership union composed of both government and civil society organizations. It is known for maintaining the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
- BirdLife International: A global partnership of conservation organizations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats, and global biodiversity.
- Centre for Biological Diversity: A U.S.-based non-profit organization focused on protecting endangered species and wild places through legal action, scientific petitions, and advocacy.
Mechanism
IEOs operate through various mechanisms:
- Negotiation and Adoption of Treaties: Facilitating international agreements like the UNFCCC or CBD.
- Monitoring and Reporting: Tracking environmental trends and countries' compliance with commitments.
- Capacity Building and Funding: Providing technical assistance and financial resources (e.g., through the Global Environment Facility - GEF) to developing countries.
- Advocacy and Awareness: Raising public awareness about environmental issues and advocating for policy changes.
- Research and Data Collection: Generating scientific knowledge to inform policy decisions.
Exam Angle
For UPSC, understanding the mandate, key achievements, and challenges of these organizations is critical. Focus on their role in global environmental governance, the legally binding nature of certain conventions (e.g., UNCCD), and India's position and contributions to their objectives.
Analysis
International Environmental Organizations (IEOs) play a multifaceted role in addressing the complex, transboundary nature of environmental challenges. Their existence underscores the principle that environmental problems, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and desertification, cannot be solved by individual nations alone. They provide platforms for dialogue, negotiation, and the development of international law, fostering a sense of collective responsibility. However, their effectiveness is often hampered by issues of national sovereignty, divergent national interests, and the North-South divide regarding historical responsibility and financial contributions. The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC), enshrined in the UNFCCC, highlights this tension, where developed nations are expected to take the lead and provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
Enforcement mechanisms for international environmental agreements are often weak, relying heavily on peer pressure, reporting, and voluntary compliance rather than punitive measures. This leads to varying levels of commitment and implementation among signatory states. The role of civil society organizations (like WWF, IUCN) is crucial in holding governments accountable, raising public awareness, and often filling gaps in governance through grassroots conservation efforts and advocacy.
Comparison Table: Key UN Environmental Conventions
| Feature | UNFCCC (Climate Change) | UNCCD (Desertification) | CBD (Biodiversity) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Establishment | 1992 (Rio Earth Summit) | 1994 (post-Rio) | 1992 (Rio Earth Summit) |
| Objective | Stabilize GHG concentrations to prevent dangerous climate change. | Combat desertification and mitigate drought effects. | Conserve biodiversity, sustainable use, fair benefit-sharing. |
| Legally Binding | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Key Outcomes | Kyoto Protocol (1997), Paris Agreement (2015) | Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) target | Cartagena Protocol (Biosafety), Nagoya Protocol (ABS) |
| Focus Area | Atmospheric emissions, global warming | Land degradation, soil erosion, drought | Ecosystems, species, genetic resources |
| India's Role | Active participant, committed to NDCs, ISA founder. | Ratified 1996, host of COP14 (2019), national action plan. | Ratified 1994, national biodiversity strategy. |
Case Study: The Paris Agreement under UNFCCC
The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 at COP21, marked a significant shift in global climate governance. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which imposed differentiated emission reduction targets primarily on developed countries, the Paris Agreement introduced a universal framework where all countries commit to Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This bottom-up approach aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, compared to pre-industrial levels. It includes provisions for enhanced transparency, a global stocktake every five years to assess collective progress, and financial support for adaptation and mitigation in developing countries. The agreement's success hinges on the ambition and implementation of NDCs, highlighting the ongoing challenge of bridging the ambition gap and ensuring adequate climate finance flows from developed to developing nations.
Mains Hooks
- Effectiveness of IEOs: Critically evaluate the effectiveness of international environmental organizations in achieving their stated goals, considering challenges like sovereignty, funding, and enforcement. (e.g., "Despite numerous conventions, environmental degradation continues. Analyze the limitations of international environmental governance.")
- North-South Divide: Discuss how the principle of CBDR-RC influences negotiations and outcomes in international environmental agreements, particularly concerning climate finance and technology transfer. (e.g., "The burden of climate action disproportionately falls on developing nations. Examine the implications of CBDR-RC in this context.")
- Role of Non-State Actors: Analyze the growing influence of NGOs, civil society, and the private sector in shaping international environmental policy and implementation. (e.g., "Beyond intergovernmental agreements, how do non-state actors contribute to global environmental protection?")
- India's Leadership: Examine India's role and initiatives in various international environmental forums, such as the International Solar Alliance (ISA) or its efforts under UNCCD. (e.g., "India's commitment to sustainable development is reflected in its international environmental engagements. Discuss.")
Recent Developments
- COP28 (UNFCCC): Concluded in December 2023 in Dubai, it marked the first global stocktake under the Paris Agreement, assessing progress towards its goals. Key outcomes included an agreement to transition away from fossil fuels, operationalization of the Loss and Damage Fund, and targets for tripling renewable energy capacity.
- Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF): Adopted at COP15 of the CBD in December 2022, it sets ambitious targets for 2030 and 2050 to halt and reverse biodiversity loss. It includes targets like protecting 30% of land and sea by 2030 (the '30x30' target) and mobilizing significant financial resources for biodiversity conservation.
- UNCCD COP15 (2022): Held in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, it focused on land restoration, drought, and women's land rights, reinforcing the commitment to achieving Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) by 2030.
The Kyoto Protocol targets GHG emissions via market mechanisms like CDM, while the Montreal Protocol phases out ODS, and its Kigali Amendment phases down HFCs, crucial for ozone and climate protection
Definition
International environmental agreements are critical for addressing global challenges like climate change and ozone depletion. The Kyoto Protocol and the Montreal Protocol (with its Kigali Amendment) represent distinct yet interconnected efforts to safeguard our planet.
Key Facts
Kyoto Protocol
- Objective: To reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, based on the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC).
- Parent Treaty: Adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- Adoption & Entry: Adopted in Kyoto, Japan on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005.
- Legally Binding Targets: Set legally binding emission reduction targets for Annex I countries (developed countries and economies in transition).
- Commitment Periods:
- First Commitment Period: 2008-2012, targeting a 5.2% reduction from 1990 levels.
- Second Commitment Period: 2013-2020, established by the Doha Amendment (2012), targeting an 18% reduction from 1990 levels for participating countries. However, many major emitters did not ratify the Doha Amendment.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
- Objective: To protect the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).
- Parent Treaty: Adopted under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985).
- Adoption & Entry: Adopted on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989.
- Universal Ratification: It is the only UN treaty to achieve universal ratification, with 198 parties.
- Key Substances: Initially targeted Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons, later expanded to include Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and other ODS.
Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
- Objective: To phase down the production and consumption of Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
- Adoption & Entry: Adopted in Kigali, Rwanda on October 15, 2016, and entered into force on January 1, 2019.
- Significance: HFCs are potent Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), though they do not deplete the ozone layer. Their inclusion under the Montreal Protocol links ozone protection efforts directly to climate change mitigation.
Mechanism
Kyoto Protocol
- Flexible Mechanisms: To help Annex I countries meet their targets, the Protocol introduced three market-based mechanisms:
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Allows Annex I countries to earn Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) from emission-reduction projects in developing countries (Non-Annex I). These CERs can be used to meet their Kyoto targets. Examples include renewable energy projects or energy efficiency improvements.
- Joint Implementation (JI): Allows Annex I countries to earn Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) from projects implemented in other Annex I countries.
- Emissions Trading (ET): Allows Annex I countries to trade Assigned Amount Units (AAUs), which are allowances to emit GHGs.
Montreal Protocol & Kigali Amendment
- Scheduled Phase-out/Phase-down: Establishes legally binding timetables for the gradual phase-out of ODS and phase-down of HFCs.
- Multilateral Fund (MLF): Provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries (Article 5 parties) to help them comply with their obligations under the Protocol. This fund has been crucial for the Protocol's success.
- Technology Transfer: Facilitates the transfer of ozone-friendly technologies and alternatives to developing countries.
Exam Angle
UPSC questions often focus on the objectives, key mechanisms, and the success/failure of these treaties. Understanding the distinction between ODS (Montreal) and GHGs (Kyoto, Kigali) is vital. The CBDR-RC principle and the role of market mechanisms like CDM are frequently tested. The Kigali Amendment is important for its dual benefit of protecting the climate while leveraging the successful framework of the Montreal Protocol.
diagram-ozone-layer-recovery-showing-depletion-and-projected-recovery-over-time
Analysis
Kyoto Protocol: A Mixed Legacy
The Kyoto Protocol was a landmark agreement, being the first legally binding international treaty to set GHG emission reduction targets. Its innovative market mechanisms, particularly the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), incentivized investments in sustainable projects in developing countries. India, as a Non-Annex I country, significantly benefited from CDM projects, attracting foreign investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency. However, the Protocol faced substantial challenges:
- Lack of Universal Participation: The United States, a major emitter, did not ratify the Protocol. Canada withdrew from the Protocol's second commitment period.
- Limited Ambition: The targets were often criticized as insufficient to address the scale of climate change.
- Compliance Issues: Many Annex I countries struggled to meet their targets, as highlighted in the reference material, which states, "All the rich countries have failed to meet the deadlines repeatedly on all the major issues but most importantly on GHS emission reduction levels."
- Transition to Paris Agreement: Its limitations ultimately led to the negotiation of the Paris Agreement (2015), which adopted a bottom-up, nationally determined contributions (NDCs) approach, moving away from the top-down binding targets of Kyoto.
Montreal Protocol: A Global Success Story
The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as one of the most successful international environmental agreements. Its success can be attributed to several factors:
- Strong Scientific Consensus: Clear evidence of ozone depletion and its link to ODS provided a strong impetus for action.
- Flexible and Adaptive: The Protocol has been amended and adjusted multiple times (e.g., London, Copenhagen, Beijing, Montreal, Kigali Amendments) to incorporate new scientific findings and technological advancements.
- Financial Mechanism: The Multilateral Fund effectively addressed the concerns of developing countries regarding the costs of transitioning away from ODS, ensuring their participation.
- Clear Targets and Timelines: Specific phase-out schedules for different substances provided predictability for industries.
- Trade Measures: Restrictions on trade with non-parties encouraged universal participation.
Kigali Amendment: Bridging Ozone and Climate Action
The Kigali Amendment is significant because it brings Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), potent GHGs, under the ambit of the highly successful Montreal Protocol. This move is projected to avoid up to 0.5°C of global warming by 2100, demonstrating how a proven framework can be leveraged for new environmental challenges. It represents a crucial step in climate change mitigation, complementing the efforts under the Paris Agreement.
Comparison Table
| Feature | Kyoto Protocol | Montreal Protocol | Kigali Amendment (to Montreal Protocol) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary Objective | Reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions | Phase out Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) | Phase down Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) |
| Target Substances | CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6 | CFCs, Halons, HCFCs, Methyl Bromide, etc. | HFCs (a subset of GHGs) |
| Environmental Issue | Climate Change | Ozone Layer Depletion | Climate Change (HFCs are potent GHGs) |
| Legal Nature | Legally binding targets for Annex I countries | Legally binding phase-out schedules | Legally binding phase-down schedules |
| Key Mechanisms | CDM, JI, Emissions Trading | Multilateral Fund, Technology Transfer | Multilateral Fund, Technology Transfer |
| Success Level | Mixed; faced implementation challenges, superseded by Paris Agreement | Highly successful; ozone layer recovery underway | Promising; significant climate mitigation potential |
| India's Role | Non-Annex I, active in CDM projects | Compliant with ODS phase-out | Ratified, committed to HFC phase-down |
Case Study: India's Engagement
India has been an active participant in international environmental agreements, often championing the CBDR-RC principle. Under the Kyoto Protocol, as a developing country, India did not have binding emission reduction targets but actively participated in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). India hosted a large number of CDM projects, contributing to its sustainable development goals while attracting carbon finance.
Regarding the Montreal Protocol, India has successfully phased out the production and consumption of several ODS as per its commitments, demonstrating its capability in implementing complex environmental regulations. India ratified the Kigali Amendment in September 2021, committing to an HFC phase-down schedule. India's strategy involves a gradual phase-down, with a baseline of 2024-2026 and a target to reduce HFC consumption by 85% by 2047. This aligns with its broader climate action goals and domestic carbon market frameworks like the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) mentioned in the reference material, which aims to reduce GHG emissions.
Mains Hooks
- International Cooperation and Climate Justice: The contrasting successes of Kyoto and Montreal highlight the importance of equitable burden-sharing, financial mechanisms, and technology transfer in achieving global environmental goals. The CBDR-RC principle remains central to India's stance in climate negotiations.
- Role of Science in Policy: The Montreal Protocol's success underscores how robust scientific evidence can drive decisive policy action.
- Sustainable Development: All these treaties align with the broader goal of sustainable development, ensuring environmental protection without compromising future generations' needs, as articulated in the reference material.
- Market-Based Mechanisms: The evolution from Kyoto's CDM to domestic carbon markets (like India's CCTS) demonstrates the ongoing exploration of economic instruments for environmental regulation.
Recent Developments
- Kyoto Protocol: While its commitment periods have largely concluded, its legacy, particularly the CDM, has influenced the design of carbon markets globally, including mechanisms under the Paris Agreement (Article 6) and national schemes like India's Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), which incorporates both compliance and voluntary offset approaches.
- Montreal Protocol: The ozone layer is showing clear signs of recovery, with projections indicating a return to 1980 levels by around 2066 over the Antarctic. However, vigilance is maintained against any illegal production or emissions of banned ODS.
- Kigali Amendment: Countries are now in various stages of implementing their HFC phase-down schedules, developing national strategies, and exploring energy- efficient and low-GWP (Global Warming Potential) alternatives for refrigeration and air conditioning.
Climate finance, particularly the contested USD 100 billion goal, and carbon markets (Article 6) are crucial for global climate action, facing challenges in equity and resource mobilization.
Definition
Climate finance refers to local, national, or transnational financing drawn from public, private, and alternative sources of financing to support mitigation and adaptation actions that address climate change. Carbon markets, specifically under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, provide mechanisms for countries to voluntarily cooperate in achieving their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) through the transfer of carbon credits.
Key Facts
- USD 100 Billion Goal: Developed countries committed to mobilizing USD 100 billion annually for developing countries by 2020, extended till 2025. While developed countries reported providing USD 115.9 billion in 2022, these figures are widely contested, with estimates suggesting actual provision is much lower, around USD 28–35 billion. This disparity highlights a significant trust deficit.
- COP30 Decision: At COP30 in November 2025 in Belem, Brazil, an important decision was made on Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement, establishing a two-year work programme. This outcome aims to shift the focus back to obligations of developed nations rather than counting private investments as climate finance.
- India's Domestic Finance: Approximately 83% of India’s finance for mitigation and 98% for adaptation is sourced domestically. However, these domestic resources are insufficient to meet the vast financial needs.
- Challenges in Accessing Finance: India faces high capital costs for climate projects, complex access to multilateral finance, and limited long-term international capital. Risk-mitigation and risk-sharing mechanisms are underdeveloped, especially for adaptation and emerging technologies.
- Green Climate Fund (GCF): The GCF is a key financial mechanism under the UNFCCC, supporting developing countries in their climate action. India, as a non-Annex I party, is eligible for GCF funding.
Mechanism
Climate finance flows through various channels, including bilateral, regional, and multilateral funds (like the Green Climate Fund), as well as private sector investments. Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) play a crucial role in mobilizing finance, often using public capital as first-loss finance to de-risk projects and attract private investment. Reforms across MDB mandates and global regulations are critical to align climate action with development priorities.
Carbon markets under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement allow for:
- Article 6.2 (Cooperative Approaches): Bilateral or multilateral agreements between countries to transfer Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs).
- Article 6.4 (Mechanism to Contribute to Mitigation): A centralized mechanism, supervised by a UN body, to generate and transfer credits from specific projects.
Exam Angle
UPSC often asks about the status of climate finance commitments, the role of international agreements (Paris Agreement, UNFCCC), India's position and initiatives (e.g., Sovereign Green Bonds, Green Credit Program), and the challenges in achieving global climate goals. Understanding the distinction between reported and actual finance, the equity concerns, and the mechanisms of carbon markets is crucial for both Prelims and Mains.
science-diagram-Global Climate Finance Flow
Analysis
The discourse around climate finance is deeply intertwined with principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC). The persistent gap between the promised USD 100 billion and the actual provision, coupled with the contested accounting methodologies, has eroded trust between developed and developing nations. The reference material highlights that figures reported by developed countries (USD 115.9 billion in 2022) are widely contested by civil society organizations (Oxfam & CARE, suggesting USD 28–35 billion). This discrepancy often arises from developed countries counting loans, private sector mobilization, and even commercial investments as climate finance, which developing countries argue should not be counted towards their historical obligations.
The decision at COP30 in Belem, Brazil, to establish a two-year work programme under Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement is a significant step towards clarifying what constitutes climate finance and ensuring that the focus shifts back to obligations rather than solely on private investments. This move acknowledges the disparity between climate vulnerability and financial capacity, particularly for nations like India, which bear a disproportionate burden of climate impacts despite lower historical emissions.
Comparison Table
| Feature | Climate Finance (General) | Carbon Markets (Article 6) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Goal | Fund mitigation & adaptation in developing countries. | Facilitate cost-effective emissions reduction globally. |
| Mechanism | Grants, loans, equity, guarantees from public/private sources. | Trading of carbon credits/ITMOs. |
| Key Instruments | GCF, GEF, MDBs, bilateral aid, green bonds. | Article 6.2 (bilateral), Article 6.4 (centralized mechanism). |
| Focus | Resource mobilization and transfer. | Emissions trading and offset generation. |
| Equity Concern | Adequacy, predictability, and accessibility of funds. | Environmental integrity, avoidance of double counting, ensuring real reductions. |
| India's Role | Major recipient, increasing domestic mobilization. | Potential seller/buyer of ITMOs, developing domestic market. |
Case Study: India's Green Finance Landscape
India has made significant strides in developing its domestic green finance framework. The Economic Survey 2025-26 highlights several key milestones:
- 2017: SEBI introduced Disclosure Norms for issuance and listing of Green Bonds.
- 2021: SEBI introduced Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reporting (BRSR) for top 1,000 listed companies.
- 2022: Ministry of Finance launched the Framework for Sovereign Green Bonds.
- 2023: SEBI introduced BRSR Core for assurance-based reporting and RBI introduced a framework for acceptance of Green Deposits.
- 2025: SEBI introduced a framework for ESG Debt Securities and revised BRSR Core to include voluntary disclosure on green credits.
India has issued Sovereign Green Bonds worth ₹15,000 crore in FY26, with cumulative issuance reaching ₹72,697 crore since FY23. Furthermore, municipal bodies in cities like Indore, Ghaziabad, Ahmedabad, and Vadodara have issued municipal green bonds, unlocking significant capital for local climate action. These bonds finance projects such as water treatment and waste management, demonstrating innovative approaches to local-level climate finance.
Despite these efforts, challenges persist. The cost of capital for climate projects remains high, and access to multilateral finance is often complex. The Green Credit Program (GCP), mentioned in the keywords, is an innovative market-based mechanism in India to incentivize environmentally friendly actions, potentially linking to broader carbon market mechanisms in the future.
Mains Hooks
- Global South's Demands: The contested climate finance figures underscore the persistent demands of the Global South for developed nations to meet their historical responsibilities and provide adequate, predictable, and accessible finance.
- MDB Reforms: The need for reforms across MDB mandates, global regulations, and domestic financial systems is critical to align climate action with development priorities and deliver inclusive, resilient growth. This includes optimizing MDB balance sheets to attract private finance, as demonstrated by the Inter-American Development Bank's mechanism with Brazil's Central Bank.
- Just Transition: Ensuring equity in climate change mitigation and adaptation requires not just finance, but also technology transfer and capacity building, particularly for hard-to-abate sectors and vulnerable communities.
- India's Leadership: India's domestic efforts in green finance, its stance on equity at international forums, and its push for a shift back to obligations rather than private investments highlight its growing leadership in global climate governance.
Recent Developments
- Road to COP29: The ongoing discussions on the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on climate finance, which is expected to replace the USD 100 billion goal post-2025, are crucial. COP29 (Baku, Azerbaijan) is a key milestone in shaping this new goal, which is anticipated to be significantly higher than the current target.
- Bonn Climate Meet: Inter-sessional meetings like the Bonn Climate Meet are vital for advancing technical work on issues such as Article 6 rulebook finalization and the NCQG, laying the groundwork for major COP decisions.
- IPCC Reports: The IPCC reports (e.g., AR6 Synthesis Report) provide the scientific basis for climate action, including the urgency of mitigation and adaptation, and the financial implications. The Emissions Gap Report by UNEP and State of Global Climate by WMO regularly highlight the gap between current pledges and what is needed to limit warming, reinforcing the need for increased climate finance.
- Global Methane Tracker: Initiatives like the Global Methane Tracker by IEA highlight specific areas for mitigation efforts, which in turn require targeted climate finance and potentially new carbon market mechanisms.
A carbon sink is any natural or artificial system that absorbs more carbon dioxide than it releases. Forests and oceans are the most common natural carbon sinks. India's NDC includes a plan to create a sink for 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2.
A carbon sink is any natural or artificial system that absorbs more carbon dioxide than it releases. Forests and oceans are the most common natural carbon sinks. India's NDC includes a plan to create a sink for 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2. An example is the massive tree plantation drives under the National Mission for a Green India.
CITES classifies species into three lists called Appendices. Appendix I offers the highest protection for species like Tigers or Gorillas. Trade for commercial purposes is banned here.
CITES classifies species into three lists called Appendices. Appendix I offers the highest protection for species like Tigers or Gorillas. Trade for commercial purposes is banned here. Appendix II allows controlled trade for species like the Great White Shark. Appendix III contains species protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for help in controlling the trade. For example, India has listed some species of turtles in Appendix III.
This principle recognizes that all countries must help the environment, but they are not equally responsible. Rich countries (like the USA) have been polluting for 150 years, so they should do more and provide money.
This principle recognizes that all countries must help the environment, but they are not equally responsible. Rich countries (like the USA) have been polluting for 150 years, so they should do more and provide money. Developing countries (like India) need to grow their economy, so they get more flexibility and support.
Net zero does not mean zero emissions. It means that any greenhouse gas sent into the atmosphere is balanced by the same amount being removed. Removal can happen through planting more forests or using carbon capture technology.
Net zero does not mean zero emissions. It means that any greenhouse gas sent into the atmosphere is balanced by the same amount being removed. Removal can happen through planting more forests or using carbon capture technology. For example, if a factory releases 10 tons of carbon, the country must plant enough trees to absorb 10 tons.
TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization (NGO). It was established in 1976 by IUCN and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Its mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to nature conservation.
TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization (NGO). It was established in 1976 by IUCN and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Its mission is to ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to nature conservation. While it works closely with the CITES Secretariat, it is not a government body. It provides data and experts to help stop illegal wildlife trade.
This Indian law was passed to implement CITES in India. It created a new 'Schedule IV' specifically for species listed under CITES. It also designated a 'Management Authority' to issue permits for trade.
This Indian law was passed to implement CITES in India. It created a new 'Schedule IV' specifically for species listed under CITES. It also designated a 'Management Authority' to issue permits for trade. This shows how a country creates a national law to fulfill its international duties under CITES. It gives the government power to regulate or ban the trade of invasive alien species too.
A Ramsar site is a wetland area designated as internationally important under the Ramsar Convention. Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, like marshes or lakes.
A Ramsar site is a wetland area designated as internationally important under the Ramsar Convention. Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, like marshes or lakes. To be a Ramsar site, an area must meet specific criteria, such as supporting vulnerable species. India currently has over 80 such sites, which receive special protection and funding for conservation.
CITES protects species by placing them in three lists called Appendices. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction, like tigers; trade in these is almost completely banned.
CITES protects species by placing them in three lists called Appendices. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction, like tigers; trade in these is almost completely banned. Appendix II includes species that are not yet threatened but need trade control. Appendix III contains species protected in at least one country that has asked for help in controlling trade.
This is a sub-agreement under the CBD that focuses on Biosafety. It regulates the movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) from one country to another.
This is a sub-agreement under the CBD that focuses on Biosafety. It regulates the movement of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) from one country to another. LMOs are living things whose DNA has been changed using modern technology, like genetically modified seeds. The protocol ensures that these organisms do not harm the environment or human health. Example: If a country imports GM maize, the Cartagena rules help them assess the risk first.
This protocol focuses on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS). It ensures that when a company uses traditional knowledge or local plants for research, they must give back to the local community.
This protocol focuses on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS). It ensures that when a company uses traditional knowledge or local plants for research, they must give back to the local community. This prevents 'Bio-piracy' where big companies take resources without permission. Example: A beauty company using a tribal herb for a face cream must share some profits with that tribe.
NDCs are the heart of the Paris Agreement. They are the efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Each country decides its own targets based on its wealth and technology.
NDCs are the heart of the Paris Agreement. They are the efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Each country decides its own targets based on its wealth and technology. For example, India updated its NDCs in 2022 to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030.
This principle acknowledges that all states are responsible for addressing climate change. However, it recognizes that not all states should bear the same burden. Developed nations have historically emitted more carbon during their industrial growth.
This principle acknowledges that all states are responsible for addressing climate change. However, it recognizes that not all states should bear the same burden. Developed nations have historically emitted more carbon during their industrial growth. Therefore, they have a greater financial and technical responsibility to fix the problem. For example, India argues for more 'climate finance' from rich nations based on this rule.
These are human-made chemicals that destroy ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere. The most famous examples are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons. CFCs were once used in fridge coolants and hairsprays.
These are human-made chemicals that destroy ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere. The most famous examples are Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons. CFCs were once used in fridge coolants and hairsprays. When they reach the sky, the sun breaks them down. This releases chlorine atoms which eat the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules.
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